[
  {
    "key": "gan_cao",
    "slug": "gan-cao",
    "name_zh": "甘草",
    "name_pinyin": "Gān Cǎo",
    "name_en": "Licorice Root",
    "name_latin": "Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma",
    "category": "补气药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补脾益气",
        "en": "Tonify the Spleen and augment qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肺止咳",
        "en": "Moisten the Lung and stop cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "缓急止痛",
        "en": "Moderate spasms and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热解毒",
        "en": "Clear heat and resolve toxicity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "调和诸药",
        "en": "Harmonize the actions of other herbs"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脾胃虚弱，倦怠乏力"
      },
      {
        "zh": "心悸气短"
      },
      {
        "zh": "咳嗽痰多"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脘腹四肢挛急疼痛"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痈肿疮毒"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "不宜与海藻、京大戟、红大戟、甘遂、芫花同用（十八反）。湿盛胀满、水肿者不宜用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 2,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "调和诸药用量宜小（1.5–3g），补益用量宜大（6–10g）"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生甘草",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清热解毒，润肺止咳"
      },
      {
        "name": "炙甘草",
        "method": "蜜炙",
        "effect": "补脾益气，缓急止痛"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "长期大量服用可引起假性醛固酮增多症（水肿、低钾、高血压）。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主五脏六腑寒热邪气，坚筋骨，长肌肉，倍力，金疮肿，解毒。久服轻身延年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "豆科植物甘草、胀果甘草或光果甘草的干燥根及根茎。归心、肺、脾、胃经。在方剂中常作使药，调和诸药，被誉为国老。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1196166",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencaodian Editorial / 本草典编辑部",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-08"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "glycyrrhizin (glycyrrhizic acid)",
          "name_zh": "甘草酸",
          "category": "triterpenoid saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "glycyrrhetinic acid",
          "name_zh": "甘草次酸",
          "category": "triterpenoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "liquiritin",
          "name_zh": "甘草苷",
          "category": "flavonoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "isoliquiritigenin",
          "category": "chalcone"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "甘草主含三萜皂苷（甘草酸、甘草次酸）与黄酮类（甘草苷、异甘草素），药理示其抗炎（类糖皮质激素样）、抗病毒、保肝、祛痰镇咳与解毒作用，并能调和诸药。",
        "en": "Gancao contains triterpenoid saponins (glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhetinic acid) and flavonoids (liquiritin, isoliquiritigenin); pharmacology shows glucocorticoid-like anti-inflammatory, antiviral, hepatoprotective, expectorant-antitussive and detoxifying effects and harmonizes formula actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性乙型肝炎辅助（甘草酸制剂）",
          "indication_en": "Chronic hepatitis B (adjunct, glycyrrhizin preparations)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "消化性溃疡",
          "indication_en": "Peptic ulcer disease",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "咳嗽痰多、咽喉肿痛",
          "indication_en": "Cough with sputum and sore throat",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "药物与食物中毒解毒辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct in drug and food poisoning",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以甘草酸与甘草苷作为含量测定指标；复方甘草片、甘草酸制剂等广泛临床应用。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses glycyrrhizin and liquiritin as assay markers; compound licorice tablets and glycyrrhizin injections in wide clinical use."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "长期大量使用可致假性醛固酮增多症（水肿、低钾、高血压）；与利尿剂、洋地黄、糖皮质激素相互作用。",
          "note_en": "Chronic high-dose use causes pseudo-hyperaldosteronism (edema, hypokalemia, hypertension); interacts with diuretics, digitalis and corticosteroids."
        },
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 建议甘草酸长期摄入不超过 100 mg/日。",
          "note_en": "WHO suggests long-term glycyrrhizin intake not exceed approximately 100 mg/day."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "十八反：不可与海藻、大戟、甘遂、芫花同用。",
          "note_en": "Classical eighteen-antagonism: avoid with haizao, daji, gansui and yuanhua."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "huang_qi",
    "slug": "huang-qi",
    "name_zh": "黄芪",
    "name_pinyin": "Huáng Qí",
    "name_en": "Astragalus Root",
    "name_latin": "Astragali Radix",
    "category": "补气药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补气升阳",
        "en": "Tonify qi and raise yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "益卫固表",
        "en": "Augment the wei qi and stabilize the exterior"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利水消肿",
        "en": "Promote urination and reduce edema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "托毒生肌",
        "en": "Expel toxin and generate flesh"
      },
      {
        "zh": "生津养血",
        "en": "Generate fluids and nourish blood"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脾气虚弱，食少便溏",
        "en": "Spleen qi deficiency with reduced appetite and loose stools"
      },
      {
        "zh": "中气下陷，久泻脱肛，子宫脱垂",
        "en": "Sinking of middle qi with chronic diarrhea, prolapse of rectum or uterus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "表虚自汗",
        "en": "Exterior deficiency with spontaneous sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气虚水肿，小便不利",
        "en": "Qi-deficiency edema with dysuria"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气血不足，疮疡内陷，脓成不溃或久溃不敛",
        "en": "Qi and blood deficiency with non-healing sores or ulcers"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气虚血瘀半身不遂",
        "en": "Qi-deficiency with blood stasis causing hemiplegia"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "表实邪盛，气滞湿阻，食积内停，阴虚阳亢，疮疡初起或溃后热毒尚盛者，均不宜用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 30,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "一般煎服9–30g；补气升阳宜炙用；固表止汗、利水消肿、托疮生肌宜生用；大剂量可用至30–120g（如补阳还五汤）"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生黄芪",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "益卫固表，利水消肿，托毒生肌"
      },
      {
        "name": "炙黄芪",
        "method": "蜜炙",
        "effect": "补中益气，升阳举陷作用增强"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "实证及阴虚阳亢、热毒炽盛者忌用。单用大剂量偶见腹胀、胸闷。与免疫抑制剂合用需注意（可能拮抗）。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，微温。主痈疽久败疮，排脓止痛，大风癞疾，五痔鼠瘘，补虚，小儿百病。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "豆科植物蒙古黄芪或膜荚黄芪的干燥根。归脾、肺经。为补气升阳之要药，被誉为补气之长，常与当归相须为用（当归补血汤）以补气生血。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1131804",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "astragaloside IV",
          "name_zh": "黄芪甲苷",
          "category": "cycloartane triterpene saponin",
          "notes": "principal pharmacopoeial marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "astragalus polysaccharides (APS)",
          "name_zh": "黄芪多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "formononetin",
          "name_zh": "芒柄花素",
          "category": "isoflavone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "calycosin",
          "name_zh": "毛蕊异黄酮",
          "category": "isoflavone"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "黄芪含皂苷、多糖和异黄酮类成分，具有免疫调节、强心、抗氧化、抗疲劳及肾脏保护等作用。",
        "en": "Astragalus contains saponins, polysaccharides, and isoflavones that produce immunomodulatory, cardiotonic, antioxidant, anti-fatigue, and renoprotective effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肿瘤放化疗辅助（改善免疫与生活质量）",
          "indication_en": "Adjuvant to cancer chemo/radiotherapy (immune support, quality of life)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性心力衰竭辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for chronic heart failure",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "糖尿病肾病与蛋白尿",
          "indication_en": "Diabetic nephropathy and proteinuria",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "反复呼吸道感染预防",
          "indication_en": "Prevention of recurrent respiratory infection",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "黄芪多糖提高巨噬细胞和 NK 细胞活性，增强非特异性免疫。",
          "note_en": "Astragalus polysaccharides enhance macrophage and NK cell activity, boosting nonspecific immunity."
        },
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 专论收录黄芪用于辅助治疗慢性病和免疫支持。",
          "note_en": "WHO monograph recognizes Astragalus as supportive therapy for chronic illness and immune function."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "与免疫抑制剂同用应谨慎；可能增强环磷酰胺疗效并减轻骨髓抑制。",
          "note_en": "Use caution with immunosuppressants; may potentiate cyclophosphamide efficacy while reducing myelosuppression."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以黄芪甲苷（≥0.040%）和毛蕊异黄酮葡萄糖苷为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies astragaloside IV (≥0.040%) and calycosin-7-glucoside as quality markers."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "dang_gui",
    "slug": "dang-gui",
    "name_zh": "当归",
    "name_pinyin": "Dāng Guī",
    "name_en": "Chinese Angelica Root",
    "name_latin": "Angelicae Sinensis Radix",
    "category": "补血药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补血活血",
        "en": "Tonify and invigorate blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "调经止痛",
        "en": "Regulate menstruation and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肠通便",
        "en": "Moisten the intestines and unblock the bowels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消肿止痛",
        "en": "Reduce swelling and alleviate pain"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "血虚萎黄，眩晕心悸",
        "en": "Blood deficiency with sallow complexion, dizziness, and palpitations"
      },
      {
        "zh": "月经不调，经闭痛经",
        "en": "Irregular menstruation, amenorrhea, and dysmenorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "虚寒腹痛",
        "en": "Deficiency-cold abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肠燥便秘",
        "en": "Intestinal dryness with constipation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风湿痹痛",
        "en": "Wind-damp bi pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "跌打损伤，痈疽疮疡",
        "en": "Traumatic injury and sores/abscesses"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "湿盛中满、大便溏泄者忌服。热盛出血者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–12g；大剂量补血养血可用15–30g；润肠通便可用10–30g。酒炒活血之力增强。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "当归身",
        "method": "取根中段",
        "effect": "补血养血"
      },
      {
        "name": "当归头",
        "method": "取根头部",
        "effect": "活血兼止血"
      },
      {
        "name": "当归尾",
        "method": "取根下部须根",
        "effect": "活血破血之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒当归",
        "method": "酒炒全根",
        "effect": "增强活血通经止痛之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "甘温滑润，湿盛中满、大便溏泄者忌服。月经过多、出血倾向者慎用。与抗凝药物(华法林)合用可增加出血风险。过量可致腹痛腹泻。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味甘，温。主咳逆上气，温疟寒热洗洗在皮肤中，妇人漏下，绝子，诸恶疮疡金疮，煮饮之。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "伞形科植物当归的干燥根。归肝、心、脾经。为补血之要药、妇科圣药，补血活血、调经止痛；李东垣谓其“头止血，身养血，尾破血，全活血”。与黄芪相须为当归补血汤。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2051387",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "ferulic acid",
          "name_zh": "阿魏酸",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "Z-ligustilide",
          "name_zh": "藁本内酯",
          "category": "phthalide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "angelica polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "当归多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "n-butylidenephthalide",
          "category": "phthalide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "当归含挥发性藁本内酯与水溶性阿魏酸及当归多糖，药理研究显示其促进造血、改善微循环、抗血小板、抗炎与平滑肌调节作用。",
        "en": "Danggui contains volatile ligustilide, water-soluble ferulic acid and polysaccharides; research shows hematopoietic support, microcirculation improvement, antiplatelet, anti-inflammatory and smooth-muscle modulating effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "月经不调、痛经",
          "indication_en": "Menstrual irregularity and dysmenorrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "贫血、血虚证辅助",
          "indication_en": "Anemia and blood-deficiency syndromes (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "血瘀型心脑血管病辅助",
          "indication_en": "Blood-stasis cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disorders (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以阿魏酸作为质量控制指标之一。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses ferulic acid as a quality marker."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "含香豆素类成分，与华法林合用可能增加出血风险。",
          "note_en": "Contains coumarin constituents; may potentiate warfarin and increase bleeding risk."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "当归补血汤（当归:黄芪=1:5）为经典补气生血方，药理研究显示协同促进造血。",
          "note_en": "Danggui Buxue Tang (danggui:huangqi 1:5) is classic qi-blood tonic; studies show synergistic hematopoietic effect."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "bai_zhu",
    "slug": "bai-zhu",
    "name_zh": "白术",
    "name_pinyin": "Bái Zhú",
    "name_en": "White Atractylodes Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma",
    "category": "补气药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "健脾益气",
        "en": "Fortify the Spleen and augment qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "燥湿利水",
        "en": "Dry dampness and promote urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止汗",
        "en": "Stop sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "安胎",
        "en": "Calm the fetus"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脾虚食少，腹胀泄泻",
        "en": "Spleen deficiency with reduced appetite, abdominal distention, and diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰饮眩悸",
        "en": "Phlegm-rheum with dizziness and palpitations"
      },
      {
        "zh": "水肿",
        "en": "Edema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾虚自汗",
        "en": "Spontaneous sweating due to Spleen qi deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胎动不安",
        "en": "Restless fetus in pregnancy"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚内热、津液亏耗、燥渴者不宜用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "健脾止泻常用6–12g；燥湿利水用9–15g；大剂量(30–60g)可用于顽固性便秘以补气通便。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生白术",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "健脾燥湿，利水消肿之力较胜"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒白术",
        "method": "麸炒",
        "effect": "缓和燥性，增强健脾止泻之功"
      },
      {
        "name": "焦白术",
        "method": "炒焦",
        "effect": "健脾止泻，多用于脾虚久泻"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性温而燥，阴虚内热、口干舌燥者不宜单用。现代研究显示本品无明显毒性，临床常规用量安全。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦，温。主风寒湿痹，死肌，痉疸，止汗，除热，消食，作煎饵。久服轻身延年不饥。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物白术的干燥根茎。归脾、胃经。为补气健脾、燥湿利水之要药，被誉为“脾脏补气健脾第一要药”，与茯苓相须用以健脾利湿。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q8208640",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "atractylenolide I, II, III",
          "name_zh": "白术内酯 I/II/III",
          "category": "sesquiterpene lactone",
          "notes": "principal bioactive markers"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "atractylone",
          "name_zh": "苍术酮",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "白术多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "白术的主要活性成分为倍半萜内酯（白术内酯 I、II、III）及多糖，具有健脾益气、调节胃肠动力、利尿、抗炎和免疫调节作用。",
        "en": "Atractylodis macrocephalae Rhizoma contains sesquiterpene lactones (atractylenolides I–III) and polysaccharides, with prokinetic/antispasmodic bidirectional gastrointestinal effects, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "功能性消化不良及脾虚泄泻",
          "indication_en": "Functional dyspepsia and spleen-deficient diarrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "癌症化疗后恶病质辅助治疗（白术内酯 III）",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for chemotherapy-related cachexia (atractylenolide III)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "轻度水肿",
          "indication_en": "Mild edema",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出白术对胃肠道具有双向调节作用，既可促进胃排空，也可抑制肠道过度蠕动。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that Bai Zhu exerts bidirectional regulation of gastrointestinal motility, both promoting gastric emptying and inhibiting intestinal hyperactivity."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学提到白术多糖可增强网状内皮系统吞噬功能，具有免疫增强作用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that Bai Zhu polysaccharides enhance reticuloendothelial phagocytosis, indicating immunostimulant activity."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》2020年版规定白术按白术内酯 III 计含量不得少于 0.35 mg/g。",
          "note_en": "The 2020 Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies a minimum content of 0.35 mg/g atractylenolide III."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "fu_ling",
    "slug": "fu-ling",
    "name_zh": "茯苓",
    "name_pinyin": "Fú Líng",
    "name_en": "Poria",
    "name_latin": "Poria",
    "category": "利水渗湿药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bland"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "利水渗湿",
        "en": "Promote urination and percolate dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "健脾",
        "en": "Fortify the Spleen"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宁心安神",
        "en": "Quiet the Heart and calm the spirit"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化痰降浊",
        "en": "Transform phlegm and reduce turbidity"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "水肿尿少，小便不利",
        "en": "Edema with scanty urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰饮眩悸",
        "en": "Phlegm-rheum with dizziness and palpitations"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾虚食少，便溏泄泻",
        "en": "Spleen deficiency with reduced appetite, loose stools, and diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "心神不安，惊悸失眠",
        "en": "Restlessness of the spirit with palpitations, anxiety, and insomnia"
      },
      {
        "zh": "带下",
        "en": "Vaginal discharge due to Spleen deficiency with dampness"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "虚寒精滑、气虚下陷者忌用。阴虚津亏者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服9–15g，大剂量可用至30g。茯苓皮偏于利水消肿；茯神偏于宁心安神；赤茯苓偏于清热利湿。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "白茯苓",
        "method": "菌核内部白色部分",
        "effect": "健脾利湿之功通用"
      },
      {
        "name": "赤茯苓",
        "method": "菌核近外皮淡红色部分",
        "effect": "利水渗湿、清热之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "茯神",
        "method": "抱松根之菌核",
        "effect": "宁心安神之力尤佳"
      },
      {
        "name": "茯苓皮",
        "method": "菌核黑色外皮",
        "effect": "专于利水消肿"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "药性平和，为补脾利湿之佳品，一般无毒副作用。虚寒精滑、气虚下陷者慎用。现代研究显示本品安全范围广。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主胸胁逆气，忧恚惊邪恐悸，心下结痛，寒热烦满咳逆，口焦舌干，利小便。久服安魂养神，不饥延年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "多孔菌科真菌茯苓的干燥菌核。归心、脾、肾经。利水渗湿而不伤正气，为补脾利湿之佳品；与白术相须为用以健脾利湿(四君子汤、苓桂术甘汤)。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q3115198",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "pachyman (beta-1,3-glucan)",
          "name_zh": "茯苓多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "pachymic acid",
          "name_zh": "茯苓酸",
          "category": "lanostane triterpenoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "tumulosic acid",
          "category": "triterpenoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "茯苓主含 β-葡聚糖（茯苓多糖）与羊毛甾烷型三萜酸（茯苓酸），药理示其利尿、免疫调节、抗肿瘤、镇静及保肝作用。",
        "en": "Fuling contains beta-1,3-glucan (pachyman) and lanostane triterpenoid acids (pachymic acid); pharmacology shows diuretic, immunomodulatory, antitumor, sedative and hepatoprotective effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "水肿、小便不利",
          "indication_en": "Edema and dysuria",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾虚泄泻、食少倦怠",
          "indication_en": "Spleen-deficiency diarrhea, poor appetite",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肿瘤患者免疫辅助",
          "indication_en": "Immune support in cancer patients",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以茯苓酸含量作为质量评价指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses pachymic acid content as quality marker."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "四君子汤、五苓散等经典方均以茯苓为核心利水渗湿药。",
          "note_en": "Core diuretic-dampness herb in classical formulas such as Si Jun Zi Tang and Wu Ling San."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "性平和缓，适用面广，虚实皆宜，长期使用安全性良好。",
          "note_en": "Mild and neutral; suitable across deficiency and excess patterns with good long-term safety."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "ma_huang",
    "slug": "ma-huang",
    "name_zh": "麻黄",
    "name_pinyin": "Má Huáng",
    "name_en": "Ephedra",
    "name_latin": "Ephedrae Herba",
    "category": "辛温解表药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "发汗解表",
        "en": "Induce sweating and release the exterior"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宣肺平喘",
        "en": "Diffuse the Lung and calm wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利水消肿",
        "en": "Promote urination and reduce edema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散寒通滞",
        "en": "Dispel cold and unblock stagnation"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风寒表实证，恶寒发热无汗",
        "en": "Wind-cold exterior excess with aversion to cold, fever, and absence of sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "咳嗽气喘，痰多清稀",
        "en": "Cough and wheezing with profuse thin sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风水浮肿",
        "en": "Wind-water edema presenting in upper body"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风寒湿痹，肢体疼痛",
        "en": "Wind-cold-damp bi with painful joints and limbs"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴疽流注",
        "en": "Yin-type carbuncles and flowing abscesses (when combined with warming herbs)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "表虚自汗、阴虚盗汗、肺虚作喘者均忌服。高血压、心脏病、失眠及甲亢患者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 2,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "发汗解表宜生用；平喘止咳多蜜炙；一般用2–9g，体质虚弱及老人儿童宜减量"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生麻黄",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "发汗解表、利水消肿之力强"
      },
      {
        "name": "蜜麻黄",
        "method": "蜜炙",
        "effect": "缓和辛散之性，润肺止咳平喘力胜，多用于表证已解而咳喘未愈"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品含麻黄碱，能兴奋中枢神经、升高血压、加快心率。过量可致失眠、心悸、血压升高。运动员禁用（列入兴奋剂名单）。单胺氧化酶抑制剂服用者禁用。孕妇慎用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，温。主中风伤寒头痛，温疟，发表出汗，去邪热气，止咳逆上气，除寒热，破癥坚积聚。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "麻黄科植物草麻黄、中麻黄或木贼麻黄的干燥草质茎。归肺、膀胱经。为辛温解表发汗之峻剂，宣肺平喘之要药，伤寒太阳表实证主药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2602813",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "ephedrine",
          "name_zh": "麻黄碱",
          "category": "phenethylamine alkaloid",
          "notes": "principal sympathomimetic; 40–90% of total alkaloids"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "pseudoephedrine",
          "name_zh": "伪麻黄碱",
          "category": "phenethylamine alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "methylephedrine",
          "name_zh": "甲基麻黄碱",
          "category": "phenethylamine alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ephedrannins (tannins)",
          "name_zh": "麻黄鞣质",
          "category": "polyphenol"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "麻黄主含麻黄碱类拟交感胺生物碱，具支气管扩张、升压、发汗、利尿及中枢兴奋作用。",
        "en": "Ephedra contains ephedrine-type sympathomimetic alkaloids producing bronchodilation, pressor, diaphoretic, diuretic, and CNS-stimulant effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "支气管哮喘（历史药理学用途）",
          "indication_en": "Bronchial asthma (historical pharmacologic use)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "鼻塞与上呼吸道充血（伪麻黄碱）",
          "indication_en": "Nasal congestion (pseudoephedrine)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "风寒感冒无汗",
          "indication_en": "Wind-cold common cold without sweating",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "麻黄碱具明显心血管和中枢兴奋作用；禁用于高血压、冠心病、甲亢、青光眼、前列腺肥大及与 MAO-I 合用；美国等多个司法辖区已限制或禁止膳食补充剂使用。",
          "note_en": "Ephedrine has marked cardiovascular and CNS stimulation; contraindicated in hypertension, coronary disease, hyperthyroidism, glaucoma, prostatic hypertrophy, and with MAO-inhibitors; dietary supplement use is restricted or banned in the US and other jurisdictions."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "麻黄碱激动 α 和 β 肾上腺素受体，产生支气管扩张和升压作用；总碱量显著影响剂量。",
          "note_en": "Ephedrine activates α- and β-adrenergic receptors, producing bronchodilation and pressor effects; total alkaloid content critically determines dosing."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "麻黄辛温发汗解表、宣肺平喘、利水消肿，表虚、阴虚及高血压者忌用。",
          "note_en": "Acrid-warm, releases exterior, diffuses lung qi to stop wheezing, and promotes urination; contraindicated in exterior deficiency, yin deficiency, and hypertension."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定麻黄碱和伪麻黄碱总量不得少于 0.80%。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia requires combined ephedrine and pseudoephedrine ≥0.80%."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "gui_zhi",
    "slug": "gui-zhi",
    "name_zh": "桂枝",
    "name_pinyin": "Guì Zhī",
    "name_en": "Cinnamon Twig",
    "name_latin": "Cinnamomi Ramulus",
    "category": "辛温解表药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "发汗解肌",
        "en": "Induce sweating and release the muscle layer"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温通经脉",
        "en": "Warm and unblock the channels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "助阳化气",
        "en": "Assist yang and transform qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "平冲降逆",
        "en": "Calm surging qi and direct rebellious qi downward"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风寒表虚证，自汗恶风",
        "en": "Wind-cold exterior deficiency with spontaneous sweating and aversion to wind"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风寒表实无汗证",
        "en": "Wind-cold exterior excess without sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒凝血滞诸痛证",
        "en": "Pain from cold congealing blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰饮眩悸",
        "en": "Phlegm-rheum with dizziness and palpitations"
      },
      {
        "zh": "蓄水证，小便不利",
        "en": "Water accumulation with inhibited urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "奔豚气",
        "en": "Running piglet qi (ben tun)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "温热病及阴虚阳盛、血热妄行诸证忌用。孕妇及月经过多者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–9g；治表证宜生用；温通经脉、助阳化气可用至9–15g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生桂枝",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "发汗解肌，温通经脉"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒桂枝",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "缓和辛散之性，偏于温通"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "辛温助热，温热病、阴虚阳盛、血热妄行诸证忌用。孕妇、月经过多者慎用。现代研究显示桂枝过敏者偶见。过量可致头晕、眼花、咳嗽等。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "牡桂，味辛，温。主上气咳逆，结气喉痹，吐吸，利关节，补中益气。久服通神，轻身不老。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "樟科植物肉桂的干燥嫩枝。归心、肺、膀胱经。为发散风寒、温通经脉之要药；与白芍相须为用调和营卫(桂枝汤)，与茯苓相配温阳化气利水(苓桂术甘汤)。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q204148",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "cinnamaldehyde",
          "name_zh": "桂皮醛",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid aldehyde"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cinnamic acid",
          "name_zh": "肉桂酸",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cinnamyl acetate",
          "category": "ester"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "桂枝主含挥发油，以桂皮醛为主要活性成分，药理示其解热发汗、扩张外周血管、抗炎、抗病毒与抗血小板聚集作用。",
        "en": "Guizhi contains essential oil dominated by cinnamaldehyde; pharmacology shows antipyretic-diaphoretic, peripheral vasodilation, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and antiplatelet effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "风寒表虚证（桂枝汤）",
          "indication_en": "Exterior wind-cold deficiency pattern (Guizhi Tang)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "关节冷痛、肩臂痹痛",
          "indication_en": "Cold joint and shoulder-arm bi pain",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "月经不调、痛经与胸痹辅助",
          "indication_en": "Dysmenorrhea, menstrual irregularity and chest bi (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以桂皮醛含量作为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses cinnamaldehyde as the assay marker."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "桂枝汤被誉为《伤寒论》群方之首，桂枝为其君药。",
          "note_en": "Guizhi Tang is considered the chief formula of the Shanghan Lun with guizhi as sovereign herb."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "温热病、阴虚阳盛、血热妄行及孕妇慎用。",
          "note_en": "Avoid in warm-heat disease, yin-deficiency with yang excess, blood-heat bleeding and pregnancy."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "bai_shao",
    "slug": "bai-shao",
    "name_zh": "白芍",
    "name_pinyin": "Bái Sháo",
    "name_en": "White Peony Root",
    "name_latin": "Paeoniae Radix Alba",
    "category": "补血药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "sour"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "养血调经",
        "en": "Nourish blood and regulate menstruation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "敛阴止汗",
        "en": "Astringe yin and stop sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "柔肝止痛",
        "en": "Soften the Liver and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "平抑肝阳",
        "en": "Calm ascendant Liver yang"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "血虚萎黄，月经不调",
        "en": "Blood deficiency with sallow complexion and irregular menstruation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "自汗、盗汗",
        "en": "Spontaneous sweating and night sweats"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胁痛、腹痛、四肢挛急疼痛",
        "en": "Hypochondriac pain, abdominal pain, and cramping pain of the extremities"
      },
      {
        "zh": "头痛眩晕",
        "en": "Headache and dizziness from ascendant Liver yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝脾不和，腹痛泄泻",
        "en": "Liver-Spleen disharmony with abdominal pain and diarrhea"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "不宜与藜芦同用（十八反）。阳衰虚寒之证及中寒腹痛泄泻者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "养血柔肝常用6–15g；平肝止痛、敛阴止汗可用至15–30g；大剂量缓急止痛可用30g以上。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生白芍",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "养血敛阴，平肝止痛之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒白芍",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "药性和缓，养血和营，多用于脾虚泄泻"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒白芍",
        "method": "酒炒",
        "effect": "减其寒性，善于和中缓急，调经止痛"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性微寒而酸敛，虚寒证及中寒腹痛泄泻者慎服。与藜芦相反，不可同用。现代研究未见明显毒性，但长期大量使用应注意配伍。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，平。主邪气腹痛，除血痹，破坚积，寒热疝瘕，止痛，利小便，益气。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "毛茛科植物芍药的干燥根，水煮去皮后晒干。归肝、脾经。为养血柔肝、缓急止痛之要药，与桂枝相须为用以调和营卫，与甘草相伍为芍药甘草汤以缓急止痛。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q163076",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "paeoniflorin",
          "name_zh": "芍药苷",
          "category": "monoterpene glycoside",
          "notes": "principal active constituent, 1.5–7% of dried root"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "albiflorin",
          "name_zh": "芍药内酯苷",
          "category": "monoterpene glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "paeonol",
          "name_zh": "丹皮酚",
          "category": "phenolic",
          "notes": "minor in Paeonia lactiflora root compared to cortex"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "tannins and gallic acid derivatives",
          "name_zh": "鞣质",
          "category": "polyphenol"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "白芍的主要活性成分为单萜苷类（芍药苷、芍药内酯苷），具有解痉止痛、抗炎、免疫调节及保肝作用；芍药甘草汤的镇痛机制主要归功于芍药苷。",
        "en": "Principal constituents of Paeoniae Radix Alba are monoterpene glycosides (paeoniflorin, albiflorin), with antispasmodic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and hepatoprotective activity; paeoniflorin largely accounts for the analgesic effect of Shaoyao Gancao Tang."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "痛经与平滑肌痉挛性疼痛",
          "indication_en": "Dysmenorrhea and smooth-muscle spasmodic pain",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "类风湿关节炎（白芍总苷制剂）",
          "indication_en": "Rheumatoid arthritis (total glucosides of paeony preparations)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "自身免疫性肝炎辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for autoimmune hepatitis",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 引用中国临床研究，白芍总苷（TGP）已作为处方药用于类风湿关节炎的辅助治疗。",
          "note_en": "Bensky cites Chinese clinical trials showing total glucosides of paeony (TGP) used as adjunct therapy for rheumatoid arthritis."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学指出白芍与甘草配伍（芍药甘草汤）具有协同的解痉止痛作用，对平滑肌和骨骼肌痉挛均有效。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note the synergistic antispasmodic effect of Bai Shao with Gan Cao (Shaoyao Gancao Tang) on both smooth and skeletal muscle."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》2020年版规定白芍按芍药苷（C23H28O11）计含量不得少于1.6%。",
          "note_en": "The 2020 Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies that Bai Shao must contain not less than 1.6% paeoniflorin (C23H28O11)."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "chai_hu",
    "slug": "chai-hu",
    "name_zh": "柴胡",
    "name_pinyin": "Chái Hú",
    "name_en": "Bupleurum Root",
    "name_latin": "Bupleuri Radix",
    "category": "辛凉解表药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "和解表里",
        "en": "Harmonize the exterior and interior"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疏肝解郁",
        "en": "Course the Liver and resolve depression"
      },
      {
        "zh": "升阳举陷",
        "en": "Raise yang and lift sinking qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "退热截疟",
        "en": "Reduce fever and check malarial disorders"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "伤寒少阳证，往来寒热",
        "en": "Shaoyang pattern of cold damage with alternating chills and fever"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝气郁结，胸胁胀痛",
        "en": "Liver qi constraint with distending pain of the chest and hypochondrium"
      },
      {
        "zh": "月经不调，痛经",
        "en": "Irregular menstruation and dysmenorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气虚下陷，久泻脱肛",
        "en": "Sinking of qi with chronic diarrhea and rectal prolapse"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疟疾寒热",
        "en": "Malarial chills and fever"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "肝阳上亢、肝风内动、阴虚火旺及气机上逆者忌用或慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "和解退热宜生用，用量较重(6–10g)；疏肝解郁宜醋炙，用量宜中(3–9g)；升阳举陷用量宜小(3–6g)。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生柴胡",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "和解退热，解表力强"
      },
      {
        "name": "醋柴胡",
        "method": "醋炙",
        "effect": "引药入肝，疏肝解郁止痛"
      },
      {
        "name": "鳖血柴胡",
        "method": "鳖血拌炒",
        "effect": "抑制升散，滋阴退虚热"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "柴胡升散，肝阳上亢及阴虚火旺者服之可致头目眩晕加重。大剂量或长期服用可引起肝脏不良反应，需监测肝功能。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦，平。主心腹，去肠胃中结气，饮食积聚，寒热邪气，推陈致新。久服轻身明目益精。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "伞形科植物柴胡(北柴胡)或狭叶柴胡(南柴胡)的干燥根。归肝、胆经。为和解少阳之要药，小柴胡汤之君药；与黄芩相须为用以和解少阳，与白芍相配以疏肝柔肝。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1031631",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "saikosaponins a, c, d",
          "name_zh": "柴胡皂苷 a/c/d",
          "category": "triterpene saponin",
          "notes": "principal bioactives; saikosaponin d is hepatoprotective but can be hepatotoxic at high doses"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "essential oil (including α-spinasterol)",
          "name_zh": "柴胡挥发油",
          "category": "volatile oil",
          "notes": "largely responsible for antipyretic effect"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "柴胡多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "柴胡的主要活性成分为柴胡皂苷（a、c、d）、挥发油及多糖，具有解热、抗炎、保肝、免疫调节及中枢镇静作用；其注射剂曾广泛用于发热治疗。",
        "en": "Bupleuri Radix contains saikosaponins (a, c, d), volatile oil, and polysaccharides, with antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, and central sedative effects; chai hu injection was long used in China for febrile illness."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性病毒性肝炎（小柴胡汤辅助治疗）",
          "indication_en": "Chronic viral hepatitis (Xiao Chai Hu Tang adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "外感发热",
          "indication_en": "Febrile illness from external pathogens",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝郁气滞型抑郁与经前综合征",
          "indication_en": "Liver-qi stagnation depression and premenstrual syndrome",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载柴胡是治疗少阳证的主药，尤以小柴胡汤为代表；现代研究支持其解热和免疫调节作用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky describes Chai Hu as the chief herb for shaoyang patterns, exemplified by Xiao Chai Hu Tang; modern studies support its antipyretic and immunomodulatory actions."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 记载日本曾有小柴胡汤与干扰素合用或用于肝硬化患者时发生间质性肺炎和肝损伤的报告，不宜长期大剂量使用。",
          "note_en": "Brinker cites Japanese reports of interstitial pneumonitis and hepatotoxicity when Xiao Chai Hu Tang is combined with interferon or used in cirrhotic patients, cautioning against prolonged high-dose use."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学指出柴胡皂苷 d 在高剂量时具有溶血性及肝毒性，临床应按规定剂量使用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that saikosaponin d is hemolytic and hepatotoxic at high doses, reinforcing the need for dose compliance."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "huang_qin",
    "slug": "huang-qin",
    "name_zh": "黄芩",
    "name_pinyin": "Huáng Qín",
    "name_en": "Scutellaria Root",
    "name_latin": "Scutellariae Radix",
    "category": "清热燥湿药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热燥湿",
        "en": "Clear heat and dry dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泻火解毒",
        "en": "Drain fire and resolve toxicity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止血",
        "en": "Stop bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "安胎",
        "en": "Calm the fetus"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "湿温、暑温胸闷呕恶",
        "en": "Damp-warm or summer-warm disease with chest oppression, nausea and vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热痞满，泻痢黄疸",
        "en": "Damp-heat focal distention, dysentery and jaundice"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺热咳嗽，高热烦渴",
        "en": "Lung heat cough, high fever with irritability and thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血热吐衄",
        "en": "Blood-heat bleeding such as hematemesis and epistaxis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痈肿疮毒",
        "en": "Carbuncles, sores, and toxic swellings"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胎动不安",
        "en": "Restless fetus in pregnancy with heat signs"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚寒、无湿热实火及妊娠胎寒不安者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g；清热燥湿多用生黄芩；安胎多用炒黄芩；止血用炒炭"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生黄芩",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清热燥湿，泻火解毒"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒黄芩",
        "method": "酒炒",
        "effect": "借酒升腾，善清上焦肺热及头目之火"
      },
      {
        "name": "黄芩炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "清热止血，用于血热出血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "苦寒伤胃，脾虚便溏者慎用。临床偶见肝功能损害报告，长期服用应监测肝酶。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，平。主诸热黄疸，肠澼泄痢，逐水，下血闭，恶疮疽蚀火疡。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "唇形科植物黄芩的干燥根。归肺、胆、脾、大肠、小肠经。为清上焦肺热与少阳胆热之要药，亦为中医安胎之常用药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q803769",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "baicalin",
          "name_zh": "黄芩苷",
          "category": "flavone glycoside",
          "notes": "principal pharmacopoeial marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "baicalein",
          "name_zh": "黄芩素",
          "category": "flavone aglycone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "wogonin",
          "name_zh": "汉黄芩素",
          "category": "flavone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "wogonoside",
          "name_zh": "汉黄芩苷",
          "category": "flavone glycoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "黄芩主含黄酮类成分（黄芩苷、黄芩素等），具有抗炎、抗病毒、抗氧化、保肝及解热作用。",
        "en": "Scutellaria yields flavonoids led by baicalin and baicalein with anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and antipyretic activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "上呼吸道病毒感染辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for upper respiratory viral infection",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "过敏性炎症和哮喘",
          "indication_en": "Allergic inflammation and asthma",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "细菌性腹泻",
          "indication_en": "Bacterial diarrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝炎辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunctive hepatitis care",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "黄芩苷抑制 NF-κB 通路，对流感、冠状病毒等显示体外抑制作用。",
          "note_en": "Baicalin inhibits NF-κB signaling and shows in vitro activity against influenza and coronaviruses."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "长期或大剂量含黄芩复方补充剂已有肝损伤病例报告；肝病患者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Cases of hepatotoxicity reported with long-term, high-dose Scutellaria-containing supplements; caution in hepatic disease."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "经典配伍用于清上焦湿热、肺热咳嗽及胎热不安。",
          "note_en": "Classically paired to clear upper-burner damp-heat, lung-heat cough, and restless fetus from heat."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定黄芩苷含量不得少于 9.0%。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies baicalin content ≥9.0%."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "ren_shen",
    "slug": "ren-shen",
    "name_zh": "人参",
    "name_pinyin": "Rén Shēn",
    "name_en": "Ginseng Root",
    "name_latin": "Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma",
    "category": "补气药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "大补元气",
        "en": "Greatly tonify original qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "复脉固脱",
        "en": "Restore the pulse and stem collapse"
      },
      {
        "zh": "补脾益肺",
        "en": "Tonify the Spleen and augment the Lung"
      },
      {
        "zh": "生津养血",
        "en": "Generate fluids and nourish blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "安神益智",
        "en": "Calm the spirit and benefit the mind"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "体虚欲脱，肢冷脉微",
        "en": "Collapse with cold extremities and faint pulse"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾虚食少，倦怠乏力",
        "en": "Spleen deficiency with reduced appetite and fatigue"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺虚喘咳，气短乏力",
        "en": "Lung qi deficiency with wheezing, cough, and shortness of breath"
      },
      {
        "zh": "津伤口渴，内热消渴",
        "en": "Fluid damage with thirst and wasting-thirst disorder"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气血亏虚，久病虚羸",
        "en": "Qi and blood deficiency from chronic illness and emaciation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "惊悸失眠，健忘",
        "en": "Palpitations, insomnia, and forgetfulness from Heart qi deficiency"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "不宜与藜芦同用（十八反），不宜与五灵脂同用（十九畏）。服用期间不宜饮茶及食萝卜（减效）。实证、热证而正气不虚者忌服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "一般煎服3–9g，宜文火另煎兑服；挽救虚脱可用15–30g浓煎顿服；研末吞服1–2g"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生晒参",
        "method": "鲜参洗净晒干或烘干",
        "effect": "性较平和，补气生津，适用于气阴两伤"
      },
      {
        "name": "红参",
        "method": "蒸制后干燥",
        "effect": "性偏温，补阳益气，适用于阳虚气弱、久病体虚"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "滥用可致人参滥用综合征（高血压、失眠、神经过敏、腹泻、皮疹）。高血压、实热证及新感外邪者忌服。与华法林合用可能降低其抗凝效果。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，微寒。主补五脏，安精神，定魂魄，止惊悸，除邪气，明目开心益智。久服轻身延年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "五加科植物人参的干燥根及根茎。归脾、肺、心、肾经。大补元气之要药，被誉为百草之王，为挽救元气虚脱之第一良药（独参汤）。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q182881",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "ginsenoside Rb1",
          "name_zh": "人参皂苷 Rb1",
          "category": "protopanaxadiol saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ginsenoside Rg1",
          "name_zh": "人参皂苷 Rg1",
          "category": "protopanaxatriol saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ginsenoside Rg3",
          "category": "protopanaxadiol saponin (enriched in red ginseng)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "panaxans (polysaccharides)",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "人参主含人参皂苷（Rb1、Rg1、Rg3 等）及多糖，为典型的适应原药物，现代研究涉及抗疲劳、免疫调节、神经保护、降血糖等；并有显著的药物-药物相互作用（CYP 酶、华法林）需关注。",
        "en": "Panax ginseng contains ginsenosides (Rb1, Rg1, Rg3, etc.) and panaxan polysaccharides. It is a classical adaptogen with preclinical and clinical research on fatigue, immunomodulation, neuroprotection, and glucose regulation; clinically significant drug interactions (CYP enzymes, warfarin) require attention."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "气虚欲脱、休克辅助（参附汤等）",
          "indication_en": "Collapse of qi, adjunct in shock (e.g. Shen Fu Tang)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "疲劳、认知功能下降",
          "indication_en": "Fatigue and cognitive decline",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "2 型糖尿病血糖控制辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for type 2 diabetes glycemic control",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 专著 Radix Ginseng 收录其用于体虚、疲劳及恢复期的适应证，并记载失眠、高血压的慎用情况。",
          "note_en": "WHO monograph on Radix Ginseng lists indications for debility, fatigue, and convalescence, noting cautions in insomnia and hypertension."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 指出人参可经 CYP3A4/2D6 影响药物代谢，并可能降低华法林的抗凝效果；与 MAOI（苯乙肼）有病例报告不良反应。",
          "note_en": "Brinker notes Panax ginseng may alter drug metabolism via CYP3A4/2D6 and has been reported to reduce warfarin's anticoagulant effect; case reports describe adverse reactions with MAOIs (phenelzine)."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 记载 Rg1 偏兴奋，Rb1 偏镇静，临床反映其'双向调节'特性。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that Rg1 tends to be stimulating while Rb1 is sedating, supporting the clinical impression of bidirectional regulation."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "da_huang",
    "slug": "da-huang",
    "name_zh": "大黄",
    "name_pinyin": "Dà Huáng",
    "name_en": "Rhubarb Root and Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Rhei Radix et Rhizoma",
    "category": "攻下药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "泻下攻积",
        "en": "Drain downward and purge accumulation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热泻火",
        "en": "Clear heat and drain fire"
      },
      {
        "zh": "凉血解毒",
        "en": "Cool blood and resolve toxicity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "逐瘀通经",
        "en": "Expel stasis and unblock menstruation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利湿退黄",
        "en": "Drain dampness and abate jaundice"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "实热便秘，积滞腹痛",
        "en": "Excess-heat constipation with accumulation and abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热痢疾，黄疸尿赤",
        "en": "Damp-heat dysentery, jaundice with scanty dark urine"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血热吐衄，目赤咽肿",
        "en": "Blood heat causing hematemesis/epistaxis, red eyes and sore throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘀血经闭，产后瘀阻",
        "en": "Blood stasis amenorrhea and postpartum stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "跌打损伤，肠痈腹痛",
        "en": "Traumatic injury and intestinal abscess"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热毒疮疡，烧烫伤(外用)",
        "en": "Heat-toxin sores, burns (topical)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "妇人怀孕、月经期、哺乳期慎用或忌用。脾胃虚寒、血虚气弱及无实热积滞、瘀血者忌服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–15g；用于泻下通便宜后下(煎5–10分钟)或开水泡服；外用适量。研末吞服每次0.5–2g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生大黄",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "泻下攻积力强，清热泻火解毒"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒大黄",
        "method": "酒炒",
        "effect": "泻下力缓，善清上焦血分热毒，活血祛瘀"
      },
      {
        "name": "熟大黄",
        "method": "酒蒸",
        "effect": "泻下力减，偏于活血祛瘀，多用于瘀血证"
      },
      {
        "name": "大黄炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "凉血化瘀止血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "苦寒攻下，易伤胃气。脾胃虚寒者不宜。孕妇、月经期、哺乳期妇女忌用或慎用。长期服用可致继发性便秘、结肠黑变病。大剂量可引起腹痛、腹泻、恶心呕吐。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "味苦，寒。主下瘀血，血闭寒热，破癥瘕积聚，留饮宿食，荡涤肠胃，推陈致新，通利水谷，调中化食，安和五脏。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蓼科植物掌叶大黄、唐古特大黄或药用大黄的干燥根及根茎。归脾、胃、大肠、肝、心包经。为泻下攻积之要药，被誉为“将军”，《伤寒论》大承气汤、桃核承气汤等以之为君。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1109580",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "sennoside A and B",
          "name_zh": "番泻苷 A/B",
          "category": "dianthrone glycoside",
          "notes": "principal laxative prodrugs, cleaved by colonic flora to rheinanthrone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "rhein",
          "name_zh": "大黄酸",
          "category": "anthraquinone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "emodin",
          "name_zh": "大黄素",
          "category": "anthraquinone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "tannins (gallotannins)",
          "name_zh": "鞣质",
          "category": "polyphenol",
          "notes": "astringent secondary effect that can cause rebound constipation"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "大黄含蒽醌类（大黄酸、大黄素、芦荟大黄素）、番泻苷及鞣质，具有泻下、抗菌、抗炎、止血、利胆及一定抗肿瘤作用；泻下作用主要由番泻苷在结肠经细菌代谢释放。",
        "en": "Rhei Radix et Rhizoma contains anthraquinones (rhein, emodin, aloe-emodin), sennosides, and tannins, with stimulant laxative, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hemostatic, choleretic, and some antineoplastic activity; the laxative effect is mediated by colonic bacterial conversion of sennosides to rheinanthrone."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "急性便秘及术前肠道准备",
          "indication_en": "Acute constipation and preoperative bowel preparation",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "上消化道出血（生大黄粉鼻饲）",
          "indication_en": "Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (raw powder via nasogastric tube)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "急性胰腺炎及肠梗阻辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for acute pancreatitis and bowel obstruction",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 专论收录大黄作为短期使用的刺激性泻药，并警告不宜长期使用以免电解质紊乱与结肠黑变病。",
          "note_en": "WHO monographs document Rhubarb as a short-term stimulant laxative and warn against chronic use due to risk of electrolyte disturbance and pseudomelanosis coli."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 提醒妊娠期、哺乳期及肠梗阻患者禁用大黄，长期使用可致低钾血症和依赖性。",
          "note_en": "Brinker notes contraindications in pregnancy, lactation, and bowel obstruction; chronic use can cause hypokalemia and laxative dependence."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出大黄后下（约 5–10 分钟）以保留泻下作用，久煎则鞣质成分突出，作用由泻转涩。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that Da Huang should be added late (5–10 min) to preserve its purgative action; prolonged decoction shifts the effect toward astringent due to tannin release."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "chen_pi",
    "slug": "chen-pi",
    "name_zh": "陈皮",
    "name_pinyin": "Chén Pí",
    "name_en": "Aged Tangerine Peel",
    "name_latin": "Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium",
    "category": "理气药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "理气健脾",
        "en": "Regulate qi and fortify the Spleen"
      },
      {
        "zh": "燥湿化痰",
        "en": "Dry dampness and transform phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "降逆和胃",
        "en": "Direct rebellious qi downward and harmonize the Stomach"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消食开胃",
        "en": "Reduce food stagnation and open the appetite"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脾胃气滞，脘腹胀满，食少呕吐",
        "en": "Spleen-Stomach qi stagnation with epigastric distention, reduced appetite, and vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿痰寒痰，咳嗽痰多",
        "en": "Damp-phlegm or cold-phlegm cough with copious sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胸痹气滞",
        "en": "Chest bi with qi stagnation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "食积不化，嗳腐吞酸",
        "en": "Food stagnation with belching and acid regurgitation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰湿中阻，头晕目眩",
        "en": "Phlegm-damp obstructing the middle with dizziness"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "气虚体燥、阴虚燥咳及吐血者慎用。温病热证者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g；理气健脾可用3–6g；化痰止咳可用6–10g。陈久者良，陈放三年以上称“陈皮”。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生陈皮",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "理气燥湿化痰之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒陈皮",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "缓和燥性，增强健脾和胃之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "辛温香燥，阴虚津亏、内热燥渴及咯血者慎用。现代研究未见明显毒性，但过量或长期使用可耗气伤津。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "橘柚，味辛，温。主胸中瘕热逆气，利水谷。久服去臭，下气，通神。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "芸香科植物橘及其栽培变种的干燥成熟果皮。归脾、肺经。陈久者良，故称陈皮，为理气健脾、燥湿化痰之要药；与半夏相须为用即二陈汤之主药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q125337",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "hesperidin",
          "name_zh": "橙皮苷",
          "category": "flavonoid glycoside",
          "notes": "principal flavonoid marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "nobiletin and tangeretin",
          "name_zh": "川陈皮素、橘皮素",
          "category": "polymethoxylated flavone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "d-limonene",
          "name_zh": "柠檬烯",
          "category": "monoterpene",
          "notes": "major component of peel essential oil"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "synephrine (trace)",
          "name_zh": "辛弗林",
          "category": "phenethylamine alkaloid",
          "notes": "trace amounts in Citrus reticulata pericarp"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "陈皮含挥发油（柠檬烯）、黄酮类（橙皮苷、川陈皮素、橘皮素）及微量辛弗林，具有促胃肠动力、祛痰、抗炎及抗氧化作用。",
        "en": "Citri reticulatae Pericarpium contains essential oil (limonene), flavonoids (hesperidin, nobiletin, tangeretin), and trace synephrine, with prokinetic, expectorant, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "功能性消化不良与脾虚气滞腹胀",
          "indication_en": "Functional dyspepsia and spleen-qi stagnation bloating",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "痰湿咳嗽",
          "indication_en": "Phlegm-damp cough",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出陈皮越陈越良，陈化过程中刺激性挥发油减少，理气和中之效更显。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes the traditional preference for aged Chen Pi, as aging reduces irritant volatile components while preserving qi-regulating activity."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学记载陈皮多甲氧基黄酮（川陈皮素、橘皮素）具有显著的抗炎及抗肿瘤活性。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen report that polymethoxylated flavones (nobiletin, tangeretin) show significant anti-inflammatory and antineoplastic activity in preclinical studies."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》2020年版以橙皮苷作为陈皮的含量测定指标，要求不得少于 3.5%。",
          "note_en": "The 2020 Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies hesperidin as the marker with a minimum content of 3.5% in Chen Pi."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "sheng_di_huang",
    "slug": "sheng-di-huang",
    "name_zh": "生地黄",
    "name_pinyin": "Shēng Dì Huáng",
    "name_en": "Fresh Rehmannia Root",
    "name_latin": "Rehmanniae Radix",
    "category": "清热凉血药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热凉血",
        "en": "Clear heat and cool blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "养阴生津",
        "en": "Nourish yin and generate fluids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肠通便",
        "en": "Moisten the intestines and unblock the bowels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止血",
        "en": "Stop bleeding from blood heat"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "热入营血，温毒发斑",
        "en": "Heat entering ying and blood levels with maculopapular rash"
      },
      {
        "zh": "舌绛烦渴，神昏",
        "en": "Crimson tongue with vexation, thirst, and impaired consciousness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血热吐血衄血，尿血便血",
        "en": "Blood heat causing hematemesis, epistaxis, hematuria, and bloody stool"
      },
      {
        "zh": "津伤口渴，内热消渴",
        "en": "Fluid damage with thirst and wasting-thirst disorder"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴虚发热，骨蒸劳热",
        "en": "Yin-deficiency fever and steaming bone tidal fever"
      },
      {
        "zh": "津亏肠燥便秘",
        "en": "Constipation from intestinal dryness due to fluid depletion"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾虚湿滞、腹满便溏者不宜使用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "鲜品用量加倍至12–30g，捣汁饮用；煎服干品9–15g；清热凉血宜生用"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "鲜地黄",
        "method": "鲜品",
        "effect": "清热生津、凉血之力较胜，多用于热病伤津"
      },
      {
        "name": "生地黄",
        "method": "干用",
        "effect": "清热凉血、养阴生津"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性寒滋腻，脾胃虚弱、食少便溏、胸闷多痰者不宜使用。不宜与萝卜、葱、蒜同食（古训）。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，寒。主折跌绝筋，伤中，逐血痹，填骨髓，长肌肉。作汤除寒热积聚，除痹。生者尤良。久服轻身不老。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "玄参科植物地黄的新鲜或干燥块根。归心、肝、肾经。为清热凉血、养阴生津之要药，温病营血分证之首选。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1071605",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "catalpol",
          "name_zh": "梓醇",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "Rehmannia polysaccharides (RPS)",
          "name_zh": "地黄多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "acteoside (verbascoside)",
          "category": "phenylethanoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "rehmannioside A/D",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "生地黄主含环烯醚萜苷类（梓醇等）及多糖，具有免疫调节、抗炎、降血糖、养阴生津作用。",
        "en": "Raw Rehmannia contains iridoid glycosides (catalpol) and polysaccharides, with immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic and yin-nourishing activities."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "热病伤阴、口干舌燥",
          "indication_en": "Febrile yin damage with thirst and dry mouth",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "自身免疫性疾病辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct in autoimmune conditions",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "阴虚血热之出血、斑疹",
          "indication_en": "Yin-deficient heat bleeding and maculopapular rashes",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "清热凉血养阴生津，主治温病热入营血。",
          "note_en": "Clears heat, cools blood, and nourishes yin; principal for warm disease entering nutritive and blood levels."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "梓醇具有神经保护及降血糖作用，被广泛研究。",
          "note_en": "Catalpol exhibits neuroprotective and hypoglycemic activities extensively documented in pharmacology literature."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定生地黄含梓醇不得少于0.20%。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia requires not less than 0.20% catalpol in raw Rehmannia."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "fu_zi",
    "slug": "fu-zi",
    "name_zh": "附子",
    "name_pinyin": "Fù Zǐ",
    "name_en": "Prepared Aconite Lateral Root",
    "name_latin": "Aconiti Lateralis Radix Praeparata",
    "category": "温里药",
    "nature": "hot",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "回阳救逆",
        "en": "Restore yang and rescue from collapse"
      },
      {
        "zh": "补火助阳",
        "en": "Supplement fire and assist yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散寒止痛",
        "en": "Dispel cold and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温经通脉",
        "en": "Warm the channels and unblock the vessels"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "亡阳虚脱，肢冷脉微",
        "en": "Yang collapse with cold extremities and faint pulse"
      },
      {
        "zh": "心阳不足，胸痹心痛",
        "en": "Heart yang deficiency with chest bi and cardiac pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾肾阳虚，脘腹冷痛",
        "en": "Spleen-Kidney yang deficiency with cold abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾阳虚衰，阳痿宫寒",
        "en": "Kidney yang decline with impotence and cold uterus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阳虚水肿",
        "en": "Yang-deficiency edema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒湿痹痛",
        "en": "Cold-damp bi pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阳虚外感",
        "en": "Exterior invasion with underlying yang deficiency"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "不宜与半夏、瓜蒌、贝母、白蔹、白及同用（十八反）。孕妇忌用。阴虚阳亢、真热假寒证禁用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–15g，回阳救逆可用至15–30g；本品有毒，宜先煎30–60分钟至口尝无麻辣感为度。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "盐附子",
        "method": "食盐卤水浸泡",
        "effect": "便于贮存，减毒"
      },
      {
        "name": "黑顺片",
        "method": "卤水煮后染色蒸制",
        "effect": "临床最常用，回阳补火散寒"
      },
      {
        "name": "白附片",
        "method": "卤水煮后漂洗蒸制",
        "effect": "毒性较减，功效同黑顺片"
      },
      {
        "name": "淡附片",
        "method": "黑顺片漂去盐分",
        "effect": "适宜浮肿及高血压患者"
      },
      {
        "name": "炮附片",
        "method": "砂烫",
        "effect": "温阳散寒力强，多用于寒痹"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品含乌头碱类生物碱，有大毒。必须炮制后入药，且需先煎久煎(30–60分钟以上)以水解乌头碱为毒性较低的苯甲酰乌头原碱及乌头原碱。生附子毒性极强，禁止内服。中毒症状包括口舌麻木、恶心呕吐、心悸、心律失常、肢体麻木，严重者可致心源性猝死。与半夏、瓜蒌、贝母、白蔹、白及相反。孕妇禁用。服后忌酒及茶。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "味辛，温。主风寒咳逆邪气，温中，金疮，破癥坚积聚，血瘕，寒湿踒躄，拘挛膝痛，不能行步。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "毛茛科植物乌头的子根的加工品。归心、肾、脾经。为“回阳救逆第一品药”，被誉为“走而不守”之峻药；与干姜相须为用(四逆汤)以回阳救逆，与白术相配以温阳化湿。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2561734",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "aconitine (diester-diterpene alkaloid, toxic)",
          "name_zh": "乌头碱",
          "category": "diterpene alkaloid",
          "notes": "Highly toxic; hydrolyzed during processing"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "mesaconitine",
          "name_zh": "新乌头碱",
          "category": "diterpene alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "hypaconitine",
          "name_zh": "次乌头碱",
          "category": "diterpene alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "higenamine",
          "name_zh": "去甲乌药碱",
          "category": "benzylisoquinoline alkaloid",
          "notes": "beta-adrenergic agonist, cardiotonic"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "附子（乌头子根加工品）含双酯型二萜生物碱（乌头碱、新乌头碱、次乌头碱）与强心成分去甲乌药碱；炮制可使双酯型碱水解为毒性较低的单酯型与胺醇型，药理示强心、抗休克、镇痛与抗炎作用，但治疗窗窄。",
        "en": "Fuzi (processed daughter root of Aconitum) contains highly toxic diester diterpene alkaloids (aconitine, mesaconitine, hypaconitine) plus the cardiotonic higenamine; processing hydrolyzes diester alkaloids to less toxic monoester and amine-alcohol forms. Pharmacology shows cardiotonic, anti-shock, analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects within a narrow therapeutic window."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "亡阳虚脱、心力衰竭与心源性休克辅助",
          "indication_en": "Yang collapse, heart failure and cardiogenic shock (adjunct, with strict supervision)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "寒湿痹痛、关节冷痛",
          "indication_en": "Cold-damp arthralgia and cold joint pain",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾肾阳虚泄泻、水肿",
          "indication_en": "Spleen-kidney yang-deficiency diarrhea and edema",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》严格限定乌头碱、次乌头碱、新乌头碱总量，并规定炮制品（黑顺片、白附片、炮附片）的使用，必须先煎久煎。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia enforces strict upper limits on total diester alkaloid content; only processed forms (heishunpian, baifupian, paofupian) are permitted and must be decocted first and long."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "中毒表现为口舌麻木、心律失常（室性心动过速、室颤）、低血压甚至死亡；治疗窗窄，孕妇禁用。",
          "note_en": "Toxicity presents as perioral numbness, ventricular arrhythmias (VT/VF), hypotension and death; narrow therapeutic window; contraindicated in pregnancy."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "不可与半夏、瓜蒌、贝母、白蔹、白及同用（十八反）；与降压、抗心律失常药需谨慎配合。",
          "note_en": "Classical eighteen-antagonism: avoid with banxia, gualou, beimu, bailian, baiji; caution with antihypertensives and antiarrhythmics."
        },
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 专论确认其严重心脏毒性与全球多起中毒案例。",
          "note_en": "WHO monograph documents serious cardiotoxicity and numerous global poisoning case reports."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "chuan_xiong",
    "slug": "chuan-xiong",
    "name_zh": "川芎",
    "name_pinyin": "Chuān Xiōng",
    "name_en": "Sichuan Lovage Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Chuanxiong Rhizoma",
    "category": "活血祛瘀药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "活血行气",
        "en": "Invigorate blood and move qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛风止痛",
        "en": "Dispel wind and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通经止痛",
        "en": "Unblock channels and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "上行头目，下调经水",
        "en": "Ascend to the head and eyes and regulate menstruation below"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "月经不调，经闭痛经",
        "en": "Irregular menstruation, amenorrhea, and dysmenorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胸胁刺痛，跌打损伤",
        "en": "Stabbing chest and hypochondriac pain; traumatic injury"
      },
      {
        "zh": "头痛，风湿痹痛",
        "en": "Headache and wind-damp bi pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "产后瘀阻腹痛",
        "en": "Postpartum abdominal pain from blood stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "癥瘕积聚",
        "en": "Abdominal masses and accumulations"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚火旺、舌红口干、多汗及月经过多者不宜使用。孕妇慎用。气升痰喘不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g；研末吞服每次1–1.5g。治头痛常用3–6g，活血行气用6–10g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生川芎",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "活血行气，祛风止痛"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒川芎",
        "method": "酒炒",
        "effect": "增强活血通经止痛之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "辛温香窜，升散力强，阴虚火旺者服之易致头目眩晕加重。用量过大可引起呕吐、眩晕。孕妇及月经过多者慎用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "芎䓖，味辛，温。主中风入脑，头痛，寒痹，筋挛缓急，金疮，妇人血闭无子。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "伞形科植物川芎的干燥根茎。归肝、胆、心包经。为血中之气药，被誉为“头痛要药”，上行头目、下调经水、中开郁结、旁通络脉。与当归相须为用以养血活血。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q15569423",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "tetramethylpyrazine (ligustrazine)",
          "name_zh": "川芎嗪",
          "category": "alkaloid",
          "notes": "developed as an isolated drug for cerebrovascular disease in China"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ferulic acid",
          "name_zh": "阿魏酸",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ligustilide",
          "name_zh": "藁本内酯",
          "category": "phthalide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "senkyunolide A",
          "name_zh": "洋川芎内酯 A",
          "category": "phthalide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "川芎的主要活性成分为川芎嗪、藁本内酯、阿魏酸等，具有扩张脑血管、抗血小板聚集、改善微循环、镇痛及抗炎作用；川芎嗪已作为单体药物用于缺血性脑血管疾病。",
        "en": "Chuanxiong Rhizoma contains tetramethylpyrazine, ligustilide, ferulic acid, and senkyunolides, with cerebrovasodilator, antiplatelet, microcirculation-enhancing, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory activity; tetramethylpyrazine is marketed in China as an isolated drug for ischemic cerebrovascular disease."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "缺血性脑血管病与冠心病（川芎嗪制剂）",
          "indication_en": "Ischemic cerebrovascular disease and coronary artery disease (tetramethylpyrazine preparations)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "偏头痛及血瘀型头痛",
          "indication_en": "Migraine and blood-stasis headache",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "痛经",
          "indication_en": "Dysmenorrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 引用中国临床研究支持川芎嗪注射剂用于缺血性中风的辅助治疗。",
          "note_en": "Bensky cites Chinese clinical trials supporting tetramethylpyrazine injection as an adjunct for ischemic stroke."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学指出川芎与抗凝药（如华法林）合用时可能增加出血风险。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen caution that co-administration of Chuan Xiong with anticoagulants (e.g., warfarin) may increase bleeding risk."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 提到川芎的阴虚火旺及月经过多者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Brinker advises caution in patients with yin deficiency with effulgent fire and in menorrhagia due to blood-moving activity."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "ban_xia",
    "slug": "ban-xia",
    "name_zh": "半夏",
    "name_pinyin": "Bàn Xià",
    "name_en": "Pinellia Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Pinelliae Rhizoma",
    "category": "化痰药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "燥湿化痰",
        "en": "Dry dampness and transform phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "降逆止呕",
        "en": "Direct rebellious qi downward and stop vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消痞散结",
        "en": "Disperse focal distention and dissipate nodulation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外用消肿止痛",
        "en": "Topically reduce swelling and alleviate pain"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "湿痰寒痰，咳嗽痰多",
        "en": "Damp-phlegm and cold-phlegm cough with copious sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胃气上逆，恶心呕吐",
        "en": "Stomach qi rebellion with nausea and vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胸脘痞闷",
        "en": "Focal distention and fullness of the chest and epigastrium"
      },
      {
        "zh": "梅核气",
        "en": "Plum-pit qi (globus hystericus)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘿瘤痰核",
        "en": "Goiter and phlegm nodules"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "不宜与乌头类药物同用（十八反）。阴虚燥咳、血证、热痰及津伤口渴者禁服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "一般3–9g，炮制品如法半夏、姜半夏、清半夏用法略异。生半夏仅供外用，内服需严格炮制。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "清半夏",
        "method": "白矾水浸泡后干燥",
        "effect": "减毒，长于燥湿化痰"
      },
      {
        "name": "姜半夏",
        "method": "生姜、白矾共制",
        "effect": "降逆止呕之功增强"
      },
      {
        "name": "法半夏",
        "method": "甘草、石灰水共制",
        "effect": "燥性稍缓，偏于燥湿和胃"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "生半夏有毒，内服必须炮制。其毒性成分可致口舌麻木、咽喉肿胀。与川乌、草乌、附子相反，不可同用。孕妇慎用。误服生品中毒应以生姜汁、醋漱口及催吐处理。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "味辛，平。主伤寒寒热，心下坚，下气，喉咽肿痛，头眩，胸张，咳逆，肠鸣，止汗。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "天南星科植物半夏的干燥块茎。归脾、胃、肺经。为燥湿化痰、降逆止呕之要药，与陈皮相须为用以理气化痰(二陈汤)。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1258277",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "homogentisic acid and 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde",
          "name_zh": "尿黑酸",
          "category": "phenolic",
          "notes": "irritant components largely inactivated by processing"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "alkaloids (ephedrine-like bases, trace)",
          "name_zh": "生物碱",
          "category": "alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "pinellia lectin",
          "name_zh": "半夏凝集素",
          "category": "protein/lectin",
          "notes": "implicated in mucosal irritation of raw herb"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "半夏生品含尿黑酸、刺激性凝集素及少量生物碱，具有强烈的口腔黏膜刺激性；经姜制、矾制或白矾煮制后毒性显著降低，保留其燥湿化痰、降逆止呕作用。",
        "en": "Raw Pinelliae Rhizoma contains homogentisic acid, irritant lectins, and trace alkaloids that cause severe oral mucosal irritation; toxicity is substantially reduced by ginger/alum processing, which preserves its phlegm-drying and antiemetic activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "妊娠呕吐及化疗诱导性呕吐",
          "indication_en": "Morning sickness and chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性气管炎痰湿咳嗽",
          "indication_en": "Chronic bronchitis with phlegm-damp cough",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 强调半夏必须炮制使用，未经炮制的生半夏对口腔及消化道黏膜有强烈刺激作用，临床仅外用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky emphasizes that Pinellia must be processed before internal use; raw herb is severely irritating to oral and GI mucosa and is used only externally."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学指出半夏的抗呕吐作用已在临床试验中验证，且与其水提物对胃肠道5-HT3受体的影响有关。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen report that the antiemetic effect of Pinellia has been validated in clinical trials and is linked to 5-HT3 receptor modulation by aqueous extracts."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 指出半夏传统与乌头反，并列入十八反；妊娠期使用应以姜半夏等炮制品为限，并由合格医师指导。",
          "note_en": "Brinker notes the traditional 'eighteen incompatibilities' prohibition against combining with Aconitum species, and that pregnancy use should be limited to processed forms under professional supervision."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "sheng_jiang",
    "slug": "sheng-jiang",
    "name_zh": "生姜",
    "name_pinyin": "Shēng Jiāng",
    "name_en": "Fresh Ginger Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Zingiberis Rhizoma Recens",
    "category": "辛温解表药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "解表散寒",
        "en": "Release the exterior and dispel cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温中止呕",
        "en": "Warm the middle and stop vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化痰止咳",
        "en": "Transform phlegm and stop cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解鱼蟹毒、半夏南星毒",
        "en": "Resolve fish and crab toxicity, mitigate Pinellia and Arisaema toxicity"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风寒感冒，恶寒发热",
        "en": "Wind-cold common cold with aversion to cold and fever"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胃寒呕吐",
        "en": "Stomach cold with vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒痰咳嗽",
        "en": "Cold phlegm cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "鱼蟹中毒",
        "en": "Food poisoning from fish and crab"
      },
      {
        "zh": "妊娠恶阻",
        "en": "Morning sickness with vomiting in pregnancy"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚内热及热盛者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–9g，或捣汁冲服；外用适量"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生姜",
        "method": "鲜用",
        "effect": "解表散寒、温中止呕、化痰止咳"
      },
      {
        "name": "煨姜",
        "method": "煨制",
        "effect": "温中止呕、止泻作用强而发散力减，用于脾胃虚寒腹痛吐泻"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "阴虚火旺、目疾、痔疮、痈肿疮疖者不宜多食。晚间不宜过量食用（古谚：晚吃姜似砒霜）。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味辛，温。主胸满咳逆上气，温中止血，出汗，逐风湿痹，肠澼下痢。生者尤良。久服去臭气，通神明。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "姜科植物姜的新鲜根茎。归肺、脾、胃经。被誉为呕家圣药，亦为半夏、天南星中毒之首选解药，常作为配伍中的引药调和诸药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q35625",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "6-gingerol",
          "name_zh": "6-姜辣素",
          "category": "pungent phenolic"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "6-shogaol",
          "category": "pungent phenolic"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "zingiberene",
          "category": "sesquiterpene (essential oil)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "zingerone",
          "category": "phenolic ketone"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "生姜主含姜辣素及挥发油成分，具有止吐、抗炎、促胃动力及抗血小板聚集作用。",
        "en": "Fresh ginger contains gingerols, shogaols and volatile sesquiterpenes with antiemetic, anti-inflammatory, prokinetic and antiplatelet activities."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "妊娠呕吐、晕动病及化疗恶心",
          "indication_en": "Nausea of pregnancy, motion sickness and chemotherapy-induced nausea",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "骨关节炎疼痛辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunctive management of osteoarthritis pain",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "风寒感冒、胃寒呕吐",
          "indication_en": "Wind-cold common cold and cold-stomach vomiting",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO专论收录生姜（Rhizoma Zingiberis Recens）用于晕动病及术后恶心呕吐。",
          "note_en": "WHO monograph lists fresh ginger for motion sickness and post-operative nausea/vomiting."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "抗血小板作用理论上与华法林及抗凝药可能协同，高剂量者需警惕出血倾向。",
          "note_en": "Antiplatelet effect may theoretically potentiate warfarin and anticoagulants; bleeding risk at high doses."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "解表散寒、温中止呕、化痰止咳，称'呕家圣药'。",
          "note_en": "Releases exterior, warms middle to stop vomiting, transforms phlegm; called the 'sage herb for vomiting.'"
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "da_zao",
    "slug": "da-zao",
    "name_zh": "大枣",
    "name_pinyin": "Dà Zǎo",
    "name_en": "Chinese Date / Jujube",
    "name_latin": "Jujubae Fructus",
    "category": "补气药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补中益气",
        "en": "Tonify the middle and augment qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "养血安神",
        "en": "Nourish blood and calm the spirit"
      },
      {
        "zh": "缓和药性",
        "en": "Moderate the harshness of other medicinals"
      },
      {
        "zh": "调和营卫",
        "en": "Harmonize the ying and wei"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脾胃虚弱，食少便溏，倦怠乏力",
        "en": "Spleen-Stomach deficiency with reduced appetite, loose stools, and fatigue"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血虚萎黄",
        "en": "Blood deficiency with sallow complexion"
      },
      {
        "zh": "妇人脏躁，烦躁不宁",
        "en": "Visceral agitation (zang zao) in women with restlessness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "心悸怔忡，失眠",
        "en": "Palpitations, fearful throbbing, and insomnia"
      },
      {
        "zh": "缓和峻烈药物毒性",
        "en": "Moderating the toxicity of drastic medicinals"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "湿盛中满、食积虫积、齿病、痰热咳嗽者不宜。糖尿病者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–15g(约3–12枚)，擘开入煎。大剂量可用至30g。与生姜同煎以调和营卫。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生大枣",
        "method": "生用或晒干",
        "effect": "补中益气，养血安神"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒大枣",
        "method": "清炒或炒焦",
        "effect": "性偏温燥，健脾止泻"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "甘温助湿，湿盛中满、痰热咳嗽、食积虫积、齿病者不宜。糖尿病患者宜少用。过量食用可致腹胀。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主心腹邪气，安中养脾，助十二经，平胃气，通九窍，补少气少津液，身中不足，大惊，四肢重。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "鼠李科植物枣的干燥成熟果实。归脾、胃、心经。为补中益气、养血安神之要药，常与生姜相须为用以调和营卫(如桂枝汤)；《金匮要略》甘麦大枣汤用之治疗妇人脏躁。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q11181633",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "jujuboside A and B",
          "name_zh": "酸枣仁苷 A/B",
          "category": "dammarane saponin",
          "notes": "related saponins shared with suan zao ren, contributing to mild sedative effect"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "大枣多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide",
          "notes": "immunomodulatory"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP",
          "name_zh": "环腺苷酸/环鸟苷酸",
          "category": "nucleotide",
          "notes": "relatively high content among food herbs"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "triterpenic acids (betulinic, oleanolic acid)",
          "name_zh": "三萜酸",
          "category": "triterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "大枣富含多糖、环腺苷酸（cAMP）、三萜酸及微量皂苷，具有补益脾胃、调和药性、免疫增强及护肝作用，是方剂中常用的调和药。",
        "en": "Jujubae Fructus is rich in polysaccharides, cyclic nucleotides (cAMP), triterpenic acids, and trace saponins, with spleen-tonifying, immunomodulatory, and hepatoprotective effects; it is widely used as a harmonizing herb in classical formulas."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾胃虚弱食少乏力",
          "indication_en": "Spleen-stomach deficiency with poor appetite and fatigue",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "血虚萎黄及更年期妇女情绪波动（甘麦大枣汤）",
          "indication_en": "Blood deficiency sallowness and perimenopausal emotional lability (Gan Mai Da Zao Tang)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "药物毒性缓解（方剂调和）",
          "indication_en": "Mitigation of harsh drug effects (formula harmonization)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出大枣在经方中常作为调和药，减缓峻烈药物的副作用，如十枣汤中以大枣煎汤送服甘遂、大戟、芫花。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that Da Zao serves as a harmonizer that mitigates the harshness of other herbs, as in Shi Zao Tang where jujube decoction is used to administer gan sui, da ji, and yuan hua."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学记载大枣多糖可增强淋巴细胞增殖并改善化疗后白细胞减少。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that Jujube polysaccharides enhance lymphocyte proliferation and ameliorate chemotherapy-induced leukopenia in animal models."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 提醒糖尿病患者大量食用大枣可能影响血糖控制，湿盛中满者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Brinker cautions that large amounts of Da Zao may affect glycemic control in diabetics and should be used sparingly in dampness with abdominal fullness."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "gan_jiang",
    "slug": "gan-jiang",
    "name_zh": "干姜",
    "name_pinyin": "Gān Jiāng",
    "name_en": "Dried Ginger Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Zingiberis Rhizoma",
    "category": "温里药",
    "nature": "hot",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "温中散寒",
        "en": "Warm the middle and dispel cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "回阳通脉",
        "en": "Restore yang and unblock the vessels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温肺化饮",
        "en": "Warm the Lung and transform rheum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温经止血",
        "en": "Warm the channels and stop bleeding (炮姜)"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脾胃虚寒，脘腹冷痛",
        "en": "Spleen-Stomach deficiency-cold with cold epigastric and abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "呕吐泄泻",
        "en": "Vomiting and diarrhea from cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "亡阳证，肢冷脉微",
        "en": "Yang collapse with cold extremities and faint pulse"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒饮伏肺，咳嗽气喘",
        "en": "Cold rheum lodged in the Lung with cough and wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阳虚出血，吐衄崩漏",
        "en": "Yang deficiency bleeding, hematemesis, epistaxis, and uterine bleeding"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚内热、血热妄行者忌用。孕妇慎用。热证及阴虚火旺者禁用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g；回阳救逆可用至10–15g；止血宜炒炭用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生干姜",
        "method": "母姜晒干",
        "effect": "温中散寒，回阳通脉，温肺化饮"
      },
      {
        "name": "炮姜",
        "method": "砂烫",
        "effect": "性较温和，温经止血，温中止泻，多用于虚寒性出血及腹泻"
      },
      {
        "name": "干姜炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "专于温经止血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "辛热燥烈，阴虚内热、血热妄行者忌用。孕妇慎用。过量可致咽喉灼痛、口干。与生姜相比，干姜守而不走，温中回阳力胜。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味辛，温。主胸满咳逆上气，温中止血，出汗，逐风湿痹，肠澼下痢。生者尤良。久服去臭气，通神明。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "姜科植物姜的干燥根茎。归脾、胃、肾、心、肺经。守而不走，与附子相须为用以回阳救逆(四逆汤)；与五味子、细辛相配温肺化饮(小青龙汤)。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q35625",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "6-gingerol",
          "name_zh": "6-姜酚",
          "category": "pungent phenolic"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "6-shogaol",
          "name_zh": "6-姜烯酚",
          "category": "pungent phenolic"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "zingiberene",
          "name_zh": "姜烯",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "干姜含姜辣素类（6-姜酚、6-姜烯酚）与挥发油（姜烯等），药理示其温中散寒、促进消化液分泌、止吐、抗炎、抗血小板与保护胃黏膜作用。",
        "en": "Ganjiang contains pungent gingerols (6-gingerol) and shogaols plus the sesquiterpene zingiberene; pharmacology shows warming, digestive stimulation, antiemetic, anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet and gastroprotective effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "虚寒性脘腹冷痛、呕吐泄泻",
          "indication_en": "Cold-deficiency epigastric pain, vomiting and diarrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "寒饮咳喘",
          "indication_en": "Cough and wheezing from cold phlegm-fluid",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "化疗相关恶心呕吐辅助",
          "indication_en": "Chemotherapy-related nausea (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以 6-姜酚与挥发油含量作为质量评价指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses 6-gingerol and essential oil content as quality markers."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "干姜、生姜、炮姜功效各异：干姜温中，生姜解表，炮姜温经止血。",
          "note_en": "Ganjiang (dried), shengjiang (fresh) and paojiang (blast-fried) differ: dried warms middle, fresh releases exterior, blast-fried warms channels and stops bleeding."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "大剂量可能增强抗凝药作用；阴虚内热、孕妇慎用。",
          "note_en": "High doses may potentiate anticoagulants; cautious use in yin-deficiency heat and pregnancy."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "xing_ren",
    "slug": "xing-ren",
    "name_zh": "杏仁",
    "name_pinyin": "Xìng Rén",
    "name_en": "Bitter Apricot Kernel",
    "name_latin": "Armeniacae Semen Amarum",
    "category": "止咳平喘药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "止咳平喘",
        "en": "Stop cough and calm wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肠通便",
        "en": "Moisten the intestines and unblock the bowels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宣降肺气",
        "en": "Diffuse and descend Lung qi"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "咳嗽气喘",
        "en": "Cough and wheezing from various causes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风寒咳嗽",
        "en": "Wind-cold cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风热咳嗽",
        "en": "Wind-heat cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "燥热咳嗽",
        "en": "Dry-heat cough with scanty sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肠燥便秘",
        "en": "Intestinal dryness with constipation"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚咳嗽及大便溏泻者禁服。婴儿慎用。孕妇慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服5–10g，宜打碎后下；婴幼儿慎用，用量酌减"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生杏仁",
        "method": "燀去皮尖",
        "effect": "去皮尖入药，润肺止咳平喘"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒杏仁",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "缓和寒性，增强止咳作用，用于肺寒咳喘"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品有小毒，含苦杏仁苷，水解释放氢氰酸。过量服用（尤其生品）可致中毒（头晕、恶心、紫绀、呼吸困难，严重者呼吸麻痹）。成人中毒量40–60粒，小儿10–20粒。婴儿尤其禁忌。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "味甘，温。主咳逆上气雷鸣，喉痹下气，产乳金疮，寒心奔豚。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蔷薇科植物山杏、西伯利亚杏、东北杏或杏的干燥成熟种子。归肺、大肠经。为治咳喘之要药，随证配伍可用于各种咳喘证。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q37453",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "amygdalin",
          "name_zh": "苦杏仁苷",
          "category": "cyanogenic glycoside",
          "notes": "hydrolyzed to HCN and benzaldehyde — source of both antitussive action and cyanide toxicity"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "prunasin",
          "category": "cyanogenic glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "fatty oil (oleic, linoleic)",
          "name_zh": "脂肪油",
          "category": "lipid",
          "notes": "lubricates intestine, basis of moistening laxative action"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "emulsin (beta-glucosidase)",
          "category": "enzyme",
          "notes": "hydrolyzes amygdalin; inactivated by proper processing"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "苦杏仁主要活性成分为苦杏仁苷，经 β-葡萄糖苷酶水解释放微量氢氰酸，抑制呼吸中枢而止咳平喘；过量则致命，须焯制去皮去苦并严控剂量。",
        "en": "The principal constituent of bitter apricot seed is amygdalin, which is hydrolyzed by beta-glucosidase to release small amounts of hydrogen cyanide that mildly depress the respiratory center, producing antitussive and antiasthmatic effects; overdose is lethal, so blanching and strict dose limits are essential."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "咳嗽气喘（外感及内伤）",
          "indication_en": "Cough and wheezing from external or internal causes",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肠燥便秘",
          "indication_en": "Constipation from intestinal dryness",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 强调苦杏仁必须焯制、剂量不超 10 g，婴儿禁用生品。",
          "note_en": "Bensky emphasizes that bitter apricot seed must be blanched, doses kept at or below 10 g, and raw seed is contraindicated in infants."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 详述苦杏仁苷水解产生氰化物的毒性风险，误服生杏仁可致中毒死亡。",
          "note_en": "Brinker details cyanide toxicity from amygdalin hydrolysis; ingestion of raw kernels has caused fatal poisoning."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以苦杏仁苷为含量测定指标，并规定炮制去毒工艺。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia assays amygdalin content and prescribes detoxifying processing methods."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "sheng_ma",
    "slug": "sheng-ma",
    "name_zh": "升麻",
    "name_pinyin": "Shēng Má",
    "name_en": "Cimicifuga Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Cimicifugae Rhizoma",
    "category": "辛凉解表药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "发表透疹",
        "en": "Release the exterior and vent rashes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热解毒",
        "en": "Clear heat and resolve toxicity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "升举阳气",
        "en": "Raise sunken yang qi"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风热头痛，齿痛口疮",
        "en": "Wind-heat headache, toothache, and mouth sores"
      },
      {
        "zh": "咽喉肿痛",
        "en": "Swollen painful throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "麻疹不透",
        "en": "Incomplete eruption of measles"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阳毒发斑",
        "en": "Yang-toxin maculopapular rash"
      },
      {
        "zh": "中气下陷，久泻脱肛，子宫脱垂",
        "en": "Sinking of middle qi with chronic diarrhea, rectal or uterine prolapse"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "麻疹已透、阴虚火旺、肝阳上亢及上盛下虚者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g；发表透疹、清热解毒宜生用；升阳举陷宜蜜炙"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生升麻",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "发表透疹、清热解毒之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "蜜升麻",
        "method": "蜜炙",
        "effect": "升阳举陷作用增强，减其发散之性"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "升散力强，过量可致头痛、震颤、四肢强直等。阴虚阳浮者误服可引动虚火。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘、苦，平、微寒。主解百毒，杀百老物殃鬼，辟温疫瘴气邪气蛊毒。久服不夭。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "毛茛科植物大三叶升麻、兴安升麻或升麻的干燥根茎。归肺、脾、胃、大肠经。与柴胡同用为升阳举陷之经典配伍（补中益气汤）。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q27641489",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "cimicifugoside",
          "name_zh": "升麻苷",
          "category": "triterpene glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ferulic acid",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "isoferulic acid",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cimigenol",
          "category": "cycloartane triterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "升麻主含三萜皂苷（升麻苷）及阿魏酸类，具有抗炎、解热、抗病毒及轻度雌激素样作用。",
        "en": "Cimicifuga rhizome contains cycloartane triterpene glycosides and ferulic acid derivatives with anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antiviral and mild estrogen-modulating activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "麻疹初起、咽喉肿痛",
          "indication_en": "Early-stage measles and throat swelling",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "气虚下陷之脱肛、子宫脱垂",
          "indication_en": "Qi-sinking prolapse of rectum or uterus",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "发表透疹、清热解毒、升举阳气，为补中益气汤要药。",
          "note_en": "Vents rashes, clears heat-toxicity, and raises sunken yang; a key ingredient in Bu Zhong Yi Qi Tang."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "中国升麻（Cimicifuga foetida）不同于北美黑升麻（C. racemosa），用于更年期研究者为后者。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Cimicifuga foetida differs from North American black cohosh (C. racemosa), the species studied for menopause."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "shu_di_huang",
    "slug": "shu-di-huang",
    "name_zh": "熟地黄",
    "name_pinyin": "Shú Dì Huáng",
    "name_en": "Prepared Rehmannia Root",
    "name_latin": "Rehmanniae Radix Praeparata",
    "category": "补血药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补血养阴",
        "en": "Tonify blood and nourish yin"
      },
      {
        "zh": "填精益髓",
        "en": "Replenish essence and supplement marrow"
      },
      {
        "zh": "滋补肝肾",
        "en": "Enrich the Liver and Kidney"
      },
      {
        "zh": "乌须黑发",
        "en": "Darken hair and beard"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "血虚萎黄，眩晕心悸",
        "en": "Blood deficiency with sallow complexion, dizziness, and palpitations"
      },
      {
        "zh": "月经不调，崩漏",
        "en": "Irregular menstruation and uterine bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝肾阴虚，腰膝酸软",
        "en": "Liver-Kidney yin deficiency with weak low back and knees"
      },
      {
        "zh": "骨蒸潮热，盗汗遗精",
        "en": "Steaming bone tidal fever, night sweats, and spermatorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消渴，耳聋目昏",
        "en": "Wasting-thirst disorder, deafness, and blurred vision"
      },
      {
        "zh": "须发早白",
        "en": "Premature graying of hair"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚弱、气滞痰多、腹满便溏者忌用。不宜与萝卜、葱、蒜同食（古训）。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服9–15g，大剂量可用至30g；滋腻易碍脾，常配砂仁、陈皮以制之"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "熟地黄",
        "method": "九蒸九晒（黄酒拌蒸）",
        "effect": "由生地黄经九蒸九晒（或酒蒸）制成，由清热凉血转为补血滋阴"
      },
      {
        "name": "熟地炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "滋阴止血，用于虚损性出血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性黏腻滋补，脾胃虚弱者久服易碍运化。腹胀便溏、痰湿内盛者忌用。服药期间忌食生冷。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，寒。主折跌绝筋，伤中，逐血痹，填骨髓，长肌肉。作汤除寒热积聚，除痹。生者尤良。久服轻身不老。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "玄参科植物地黄的块根经黄酒拌蒸加工炮制而成。归肝、肾经。为补血滋阴填精之要药，四物汤、六味地黄丸、左归丸之君药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1071605",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "catalpol",
          "name_zh": "梓醇",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside (reduced during processing)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "Rehmannia polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "熟地黄多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "5-HMF (5-hydroxymethylfurfural)",
          "category": "processing-generated furfural"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "stachyose / verbascose",
          "category": "oligosaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "熟地黄经九蒸九晒炮制后，梓醇含量降低而多糖及5-HMF增加，具有补血、免疫调节及造血促进作用。",
        "en": "Prepared Rehmannia, steamed and sun-dried repeatedly, has reduced catalpol but elevated polysaccharides and 5-HMF, with blood-tonifying, immunomodulatory and hematopoietic-promoting activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "血虚萎黄、月经不调",
          "indication_en": "Blood-deficient sallow complexion and menstrual irregularity",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝肾阴虚腰膝酸软、遗精",
          "indication_en": "Liver-Kidney yin deficiency with lumbar soreness and spermatorrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "化疗后骨髓抑制辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for post-chemotherapy myelosuppression",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "滋阴补血、益精填髓，为四物汤、六味地黄丸君药。",
          "note_en": "Nourishes yin, tonifies blood, and replenishes essence; sovereign herb in Si Wu Tang and Liu Wei Di Huang Wan."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "炮制后多糖含量升高，增强免疫和促造血作用为现代主要药理发现。",
          "note_en": "Processing increases polysaccharide content, which underlies much of its modern immunomodulatory and hematopoietic activity."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》熟地黄以毛蕊花糖苷为指标成分。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses verbascoside (acteoside) as a marker for prepared Rehmannia."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "shan_yao",
    "slug": "shan-yao",
    "name_zh": "山药",
    "name_pinyin": "Shān Yào",
    "name_en": "Chinese Yam",
    "name_latin": "Dioscoreae Rhizoma",
    "category": "补气药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "益气养阴",
        "en": "Augment qi and nourish yin"
      },
      {
        "zh": "补脾肺肾",
        "en": "Tonify Spleen, Lung, and Kidney"
      },
      {
        "zh": "固精止带",
        "en": "Secure essence and stop leukorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "生津止渴",
        "en": "Generate fluids and relieve thirst"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脾虚食少，便溏泄泻",
        "en": "Spleen deficiency with reduced appetite and loose stools"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺虚喘咳",
        "en": "Lung deficiency with chronic cough and wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾虚遗精、带下、尿频",
        "en": "Kidney deficiency with spermatorrhea, leukorrhea, and urinary frequency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "虚热消渴",
        "en": "Wasting-thirst disorder from deficiency heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾虚久泻",
        "en": "Chronic diarrhea from Spleen deficiency"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "湿盛中满或有实邪积滞者不宜单用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 15,
      "max": 30,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服15–30g，大剂量可用至60–250g（张锡纯善用）；研末吞服每次6–10g；补阴宜生用，健脾止泻宜炒用"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生山药",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "补肾生精，益肺阴之力较胜"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒山药",
        "method": "麸炒",
        "effect": "健脾止泻作用增强，用于脾虚泄泻"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性味平和，一般无毒副作用。含尿囊素、薯蓣皂苷，对糖尿病有辅助降糖作用但不可替代药物。鲜品外敷偶见接触性皮炎。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，温。主伤中，补虚羸，除寒热邪气，补中益气力，长肌肉。久服耳目聪明，轻身不饥延年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "薯蓣科植物薯蓣的干燥根茎。归脾、肺、肾经。平补肺脾肾三脏，气阴双补而不滋腻，为药食同源之佳品，六味地黄丸之要药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q5279593",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "diosgenin",
          "name_zh": "薯蓣皂苷元",
          "category": "steroidal sapogenin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "dioscin",
          "category": "steroidal saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "mucilage polysaccharides",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "allantoin",
          "category": "purine derivative"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "山药（薯蓣）含甾体皂苷（薯蓣皂苷元、薯蓣皂苷）、粘液多糖、尿囊素与淀粉酶，现代研究显示其具降血糖、免疫调节、护肠黏膜及抗氧化作用，对应传统补脾养胃、生津益肺、补肾涩精之功。",
        "en": "Chinese yam contains steroidal saponins (diosgenin, dioscin), mucilage polysaccharides, allantoin, and amylases, with preclinical evidence for hypoglycemic, immunomodulatory, gastric mucosa-protective, and antioxidant effects, aligning with its traditional spleen-stomach tonifying and kidney-essence securing role."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾虚食少、便溏、久泻",
          "indication_en": "Spleen deficiency with poor appetite, loose stools, chronic diarrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "糖尿病（消渴）辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for diabetes (xiao ke)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肺虚久咳、肾虚遗精",
          "indication_en": "Lung-deficiency chronic cough, kidney-deficiency spermatorrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出山药性平味甘，药食两用，为平补三焦之要药。",
          "note_en": "Bensky describes Shan Yao as neutral and sweet, both food and medicine, a key gentle tonic for all three jiao."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述山药多糖在动物糖尿病模型中具降糖及改善胰岛素敏感性作用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize that yam polysaccharides lower blood glucose and improve insulin sensitivity in animal diabetes models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "huang_lian",
    "slug": "huang-lian",
    "name_zh": "黄连",
    "name_pinyin": "Huáng Lián",
    "name_en": "Coptis Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Coptidis Rhizoma",
    "category": "清热燥湿药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热燥湿",
        "en": "Clear heat and dry dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泻火解毒",
        "en": "Drain fire and resolve toxicity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清心除烦",
        "en": "Clear the Heart and eliminate vexation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清胃止呕",
        "en": "Clear the Stomach and stop vomiting"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "湿热痞满，呕吐吞酸",
        "en": "Damp-heat focal distention with vomiting and acid regurgitation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热泻痢，里急后重",
        "en": "Damp-heat dysentery with tenesmus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "高热神昏，心火亢盛",
        "en": "High fever with impaired consciousness and exuberant Heart fire"
      },
      {
        "zh": "心烦不寐",
        "en": "Vexation and insomnia"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血热吐衄",
        "en": "Blood-heat bleeding such as hematemesis and epistaxis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痈肿疔疮，目赤牙痛",
        "en": "Carbuncles, sores, red eyes, and toothache"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚寒者忌用。苦寒伤胃，易败胃气，不宜久服大量。阴虚津伤者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 2,
      "max": 5,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤一般2–5g；清心、清胃可用3–6g；外用适量，研末调敷"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生黄连",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清热燥湿，泻火解毒之力最强，多用于湿热泻痢、高热神昏"
      },
      {
        "name": "姜黄连",
        "method": "姜汁炒",
        "effect": "缓和苦寒之性，和胃止呕，善治胃热呕吐"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒黄连",
        "method": "酒炒",
        "effect": "借酒上行，善清头目之火，治目赤肿痛、口舌生疮"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品大苦大寒，过用或久服易伤脾胃阳气。含小檗碱，新生儿及G6PD缺乏者慎用，可诱发溶血。不宜与猪肉同食（古训）。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦，寒。主热气目痛，眦伤泣出，明目，肠澼腹痛下痢，妇人阴中肿痛。久服令人不忘。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "毛茛科植物黄连、三角叶黄连或云连的干燥根茎。归心、脾、胃、肝、胆、大肠经。为清热燥湿、泻火解毒之要药，尤善清中焦湿热与心火。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q842233",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "berberine",
          "name_zh": "小檗碱",
          "category": "isoquinoline alkaloid",
          "notes": "5–8% of rhizome; principal marker compound"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "coptisine",
          "name_zh": "黄连碱",
          "category": "isoquinoline alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "palmatine",
          "name_zh": "巴马汀",
          "category": "isoquinoline alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "jatrorrhizine",
          "name_zh": "药根碱",
          "category": "isoquinoline alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "magnoflorine",
          "name_zh": "木兰花碱",
          "category": "aporphine alkaloid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "黄连主含异喹啉生物碱（以小檗碱为代表），具广谱抗菌、抗炎、降血糖、调血脂及抗心律失常等现代药理作用。",
        "en": "Coptis contains isoquinoline alkaloids led by berberine, with broad-spectrum antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, lipid-lowering, and antiarrhythmic pharmacological activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "细菌性腹泻与肠道感染",
          "indication_en": "Bacterial diarrhea and intestinal infection",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "2 型糖尿病辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Type 2 diabetes mellitus adjunct therapy",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "高脂血症",
          "indication_en": "Hyperlipidemia",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "幽门螺杆菌相关胃炎",
          "indication_en": "H. pylori-associated gastritis",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "传统视黄连为苦寒清热燥湿要药，现代研究证实其生物碱抗菌活性。",
          "note_en": "Traditionally the premier bitter-cold herb for damp-heat; modern studies confirm alkaloid-based antimicrobial action."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "小檗碱对痢疾杆菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、幽门螺杆菌等均有抑制作用。",
          "note_en": "Berberine inhibits Shigella, Staphylococcus aureus, and Helicobacter pylori among others."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "孕妇及新生儿禁用——小檗碱可置换胆红素诱发核黄疸；并注意其 CYP3A4/P-gp 相互作用。",
          "note_en": "Contraindicated in pregnancy and neonates — berberine displaces bilirubin and may precipitate kernicterus; caution with CYP3A4/P-gp interactions."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以小檗碱含量（不少于 5.5%）为质量控制指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies berberine content (≥5.5%) as the quality marker."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "zhi_mu",
    "slug": "zhi-mu",
    "name_zh": "知母",
    "name_pinyin": "Zhī Mǔ",
    "name_en": "Anemarrhena Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Anemarrhenae Rhizoma",
    "category": "清热泻火药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热泻火",
        "en": "Clear heat and drain fire"
      },
      {
        "zh": "滋阴润燥",
        "en": "Enrich yin and moisten dryness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "生津止渴",
        "en": "Generate fluids and relieve thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "除烦",
        "en": "Eliminate vexation"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "外感热病，高热烦渴",
        "en": "Externally contracted warm diseases with high fever, vexation and thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺热燥咳",
        "en": "Lung heat dry cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "骨蒸潮热，盗汗",
        "en": "Steaming bone tidal fever and night sweats"
      },
      {
        "zh": "内热消渴",
        "en": "Internal heat wasting-thirst disorder"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肠燥便秘",
        "en": "Intestinal dryness with constipation"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚寒、大便溏泄者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–12g；清热泻火宜生用，滋阴降火宜盐水炒"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生知母",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清热泻火之力较强，用于气分实热"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐知母",
        "method": "盐水炒",
        "effect": "引药下行，滋阴降火力胜，善治下焦阴虚火旺"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性寒质润，脾虚便溏者忌用。久服大量可碍脾助湿。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，寒。主消渴热中，除邪气，肢体浮肿，下水，补不足，益气。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "百合科植物知母的干燥根茎。归肺、胃、肾经。上能清肺胃之实热，下能滋肝肾之阴精，常与石膏相须为用（白虎汤）治气分大热。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q4379",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "timosaponin A-III",
          "name_zh": "知母皂苷 A-III",
          "category": "steroidal saponin",
          "notes": "hypoglycemic and neuroprotective marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "timosaponin B-II",
          "category": "steroidal saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "mangiferin",
          "name_zh": "芒果苷",
          "category": "xanthone C-glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "anemarrhena polysaccharides",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "知母含知母皂苷及芒果苷等成分，具有解热、降血糖、抗炎、抗菌及神经保护作用，为清热泻火、滋阴润燥之药理依据。",
        "en": "Anemarrhena rhizome contains timosaponins and mangiferin with antipyretic, hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and neuroprotective effects, underlying its heat-clearing, fire-draining and yin-nourishing actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "气分高热、烦渴",
          "indication_en": "High fever at the qi level with vexing thirst",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "阴虚内热、骨蒸潮热",
          "indication_en": "Yin-deficient internal heat and steaming-bone tidal fever",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "2 型糖尿病辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for type 2 diabetes mellitus",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 将知母配石膏清气分实热，配黄柏滋肾降火。",
          "note_en": "Bensky pairs Zhi Mu with Shi Gao to clear qi-level excess heat and with Huang Bai to nourish kidney and drain fire."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述知母皂苷 B-II 在阿尔茨海默动物模型中显示神经保护作用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite timosaponin B-II showing neuroprotection in Alzheimer's animal models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "shi_gao",
    "slug": "shi-gao",
    "name_zh": "石膏",
    "name_pinyin": "Shí Gāo",
    "name_en": "Gypsum",
    "name_latin": "Gypsum Fibrosum",
    "category": "清热泻火药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热泻火",
        "en": "Clear heat and drain fire"
      },
      {
        "zh": "除烦止渴",
        "en": "Eliminate vexation and stop thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清肺平喘",
        "en": "Clear the Lung and calm wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "收敛生肌（煅用）",
        "en": "Astringe and generate flesh (calcined)"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "温热病气分实热，壮热烦渴",
        "en": "Qi-level excess heat in warm diseases with vigorous fever, vexation and thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺热喘咳",
        "en": "Lung heat with wheezing and cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胃火亢盛，头痛、牙痛、口舌生疮",
        "en": "Exuberant Stomach fire with headache, toothache, and mouth sores"
      },
      {
        "zh": "中暑烦渴",
        "en": "Summerheat stroke with vexation and thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外用疮疡溃后不敛，湿疹烫伤（煅）",
        "en": "Topical: non-healing sores, eczema, burns (calcined form)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚寒及阴虚内热者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 15,
      "max": 60,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服宜先煎15–60g，大剂量可用至120–250g（治温热病高热）；外用适量，煅研末敷患处"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生石膏",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清热泻火、除烦止渴，用于气分实热证"
      },
      {
        "name": "煅石膏",
        "method": "煅烧",
        "effect": "收湿敛疮、生肌止血，外用为主"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "生石膏大寒，脾胃虚寒者忌内服。用量过大可损伤阳气。煅石膏不宜内服，仅供外用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味辛，微寒。主中风寒热，心下逆气惊喘，口干舌焦不能息，腹中坚痛，除邪鬼，产乳金疮。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "硫酸盐类矿物硬石膏族石膏，主含含水硫酸钙。归肺、胃经。为清气分大热之要药，与知母相须为用（白虎汤）治阳明气分实热。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q82658",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "hydrated calcium sulfate (CaSO4·2H2O)",
          "name_zh": "含水硫酸钙",
          "category": "mineral"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "trace iron, aluminum, magnesium",
          "category": "trace minerals"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "trace silica",
          "category": "mineral"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "石膏为含水硫酸钙矿物药，具有解热、抗炎、镇静作用，主治阳明气分大热。",
        "en": "Gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate) is a mineral drug with antipyretic, anti-inflammatory and mild sedative effects, principally used for yangming-qi level high heat."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "外感高热烦渴",
          "indication_en": "High fever with irritability and thirst from external contraction",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肺热咳喘、牙龈肿痛",
          "indication_en": "Lung-heat cough/wheezing and toothache",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "清热泻火、除烦止渴，为白虎汤君药。",
          "note_en": "Clears heat, drains fire, and relieves thirst; sovereign herb in Bai Hu Tang."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定生石膏含CaSO4·2H2O不得少于95.0%，煅石膏供外用收湿敛疮。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies not less than 95.0% CaSO4·2H2O in raw gypsum; calcined gypsum is for external astringent use."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "tao_ren",
    "slug": "tao-ren",
    "name_zh": "桃仁",
    "name_pinyin": "Táo Rén",
    "name_en": "Peach Kernel",
    "name_latin": "Persicae Semen",
    "category": "活血祛瘀药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "活血祛瘀",
        "en": "Invigorate blood and dispel stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肠通便",
        "en": "Moisten the intestines and unblock the bowels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止咳平喘",
        "en": "Stop cough and calm wheezing"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "经闭痛经，癥瘕痞块",
        "en": "Amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and abdominal masses from blood stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "产后瘀阻腹痛",
        "en": "Postpartum abdominal pain from blood stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "跌打损伤，瘀血肿痛",
        "en": "Traumatic injury with stasis swelling and pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肠燥便秘",
        "en": "Intestinal dryness with constipation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺痈肠痈",
        "en": "Lung and intestinal abscess"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇忌用。便溏者慎用。血虚无瘀滞者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服5–10g，宜捣碎入药"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生桃仁",
        "method": "去皮生用",
        "effect": "活血祛瘀、润肠通便之力较胜"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒桃仁",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "缓和油腻，减少滑肠，多用于瘀血证而便不燥者"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品含苦杏仁苷，水解产生氢氰酸，过量可致中毒（头晕、恶心、呼吸困难）。不宜生吞整粒。孕妇禁用（有致堕胎之虞）。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "味苦，平。主瘀血血闭瘕邪气，杀小虫。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蔷薇科植物桃或山桃的干燥成熟种子。归心、肝、大肠经。为活血祛瘀之常用药，与红花相须为用（桃红四物汤）以增强破血之力。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q13189",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "amygdalin",
          "name_zh": "苦杏仁苷",
          "category": "cyanogenic glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "fatty oil (oleic, linoleic)",
          "category": "fixed oil"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "emulsin (beta-glucosidase)",
          "category": "enzyme"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "prunasin",
          "category": "cyanogenic glycoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "桃仁主含苦杏仁苷和脂肪油，具有活血化瘀、润肠通便、抗凝及抗炎作用。",
        "en": "Peach kernel contains amygdalin and fatty oil, with blood-activating, laxative, antiplatelet/anticoagulant and anti-inflammatory effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "瘀血痛经、产后瘀滞腹痛",
          "indication_en": "Blood-stasis dysmenorrhea and post-partum stasis pain",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肠燥便秘",
          "indication_en": "Dry intestinal constipation",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "活血祛瘀、润肠通便，为桃核承气汤主药。",
          "note_en": "Invigorates blood, dispels stasis, and moistens the intestines; principal herb in Tao He Cheng Qi Tang."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "苦杏仁苷在肠道可释出氢氰酸，大剂量有中毒风险；与抗凝药物合用可能增加出血倾向。",
          "note_en": "Amygdalin can release hydrocyanic acid in the gut with overdose toxicity risk; may potentiate anticoagulants."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "hong_hua",
    "slug": "hong-hua",
    "name_zh": "红花",
    "name_pinyin": "Hóng Huā",
    "name_en": "Safflower",
    "name_latin": "Carthami Flos",
    "category": "活血祛瘀药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "活血通经",
        "en": "Invigorate blood and unblock the channels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散瘀止痛",
        "en": "Dispel stasis and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "养血和血",
        "en": "Nourish and harmonize blood (small dose)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化斑消肿",
        "en": "Transform macules and reduce swelling"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "血滞经闭，痛经",
        "en": "Blood stasis amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "产后恶露不行",
        "en": "Retained lochia after childbirth"
      },
      {
        "zh": "癥瘕痞块",
        "en": "Abdominal masses"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胸痹心痛",
        "en": "Chest bi and cardiac pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "跌打损伤，瘀肿疼痛",
        "en": "Traumatic injury with stasis swelling and pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热郁血瘀之斑疹色暗",
        "en": "Dark-colored rashes from heat stagnation with blood stasis"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇忌用。月经过多及有出血倾向者慎用或忌用。无瘀血者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g。小剂量(1.5–3g)养血和血；中剂量(3–6g)活血调经；大剂量(9–15g)破血逐瘀。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生红花",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "活血通经，散瘀止痛"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒红花",
        "method": "酒炒",
        "effect": "增强活血通经之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "辛温行散，孕妇绝对禁用，误服可致流产。月经过多、出血倾向、溃疡病及消化道出血者禁用。与抗凝药物合用可增加出血风险。过量可致月经过多、崩漏。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "",
        "passage": "红花古名红蓝花，《神农本草经》未载，《开宝本草》始录；《金匮要略》已有红蓝花酒方治妇人腹中刺痛。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物红花的干燥花。归心、肝经。活血通经、散瘀止痛之要药；常与桃仁相须为用(桃红四物汤)，临床广泛用于心脑血管疾病及妇科瘀血证。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q156625",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA)",
          "name_zh": "羟基红花黄色素 A",
          "category": "quinochalcone C-glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "safflor yellow",
          "name_zh": "红花黄色素",
          "category": "quinochalcone pigment"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "carthamin",
          "name_zh": "红花红色素",
          "category": "quinochalcone pigment"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "红花（Carthamus tinctorius）主含羟基红花黄色素 A 等醌式查尔酮色素，药理示其扩张冠脉、抗血小板、抗血栓、抗炎与改善微循环作用。",
        "en": "Honghua (Carthamus tinctorius) contains quinochalcone pigments, chiefly hydroxysafflor yellow A; pharmacology shows coronary vasodilation, antiplatelet, antithrombotic, anti-inflammatory and microcirculation-improving effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "冠心病心绞痛",
          "indication_en": "Coronary artery disease / angina",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "缺血性脑卒中辅助",
          "indication_en": "Ischemic stroke (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "闭经、痛经与产后瘀阻",
          "indication_en": "Amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea and postpartum blood stasis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以羟基红花黄色素 A 作为含量测定指标；红花注射液与红花黄色素注射液用于心脑血管疾病。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses HSYA as assay marker; honghua injection and safflower yellow injection used for cardiovascular-cerebrovascular disease."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "具活血作用，孕妇禁用；与抗凝抗血小板药合用需警惕出血风险。",
          "note_en": "Blood-moving action contraindicates pregnancy; caution with anticoagulant/antiplatelet drugs for bleeding risk."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "小剂量活血，大剂量破血；与桃仁为经典活血药对。",
          "note_en": "Small doses invigorate blood, large doses break stasis; classical pair with taoren."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "dan_shen",
    "slug": "dan-shen",
    "name_zh": "丹参",
    "name_pinyin": "Dān Shēn",
    "name_en": "Salvia Root",
    "name_latin": "Salviae Miltiorrhizae Radix et Rhizoma",
    "category": "活血祛瘀药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "活血祛瘀",
        "en": "Invigorate blood and dispel stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通经止痛",
        "en": "Unblock channels and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清心除烦",
        "en": "Clear the Heart and eliminate vexation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "凉血消痈",
        "en": "Cool blood and reduce abscesses"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "月经不调，经闭痛经，产后瘀滞",
        "en": "Irregular menstruation, amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and postpartum stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胸痹心痛，脘腹胁痛",
        "en": "Chest bi (angina), epigastric and hypochondriac pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "癥瘕积聚",
        "en": "Abdominal masses and accumulations"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热痹疼痛",
        "en": "Heat-bi pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "心烦不眠",
        "en": "Vexation and insomnia"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疮疡肿毒",
        "en": "Sores and swelling with toxicity"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "不宜与藜芦同用（十八反）。无瘀血者慎用。孕妇慎用。月经过多及出血倾向者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 10,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服10–15g，大剂量可用至30g。活血化瘀宜酒炙用；清心除烦宜生用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生丹参",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清心凉血，活血消痈"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒丹参",
        "method": "酒炒",
        "effect": "增强活血通经止痛之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "与藜芦相反，不可同用。与抗凝药物(华法林、阿司匹林)合用可增加出血风险。现代研究显示本品及复方丹参制剂与抗凝药存在药物相互作用。月经过多、有出血倾向者慎用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦，微寒。主心腹邪气，肠鸣幽幽如走水，寒热积聚，破癥除瘕，止烦满，益气。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "唇形科植物丹参的干燥根及根茎。归心、肝经。“一味丹参，功同四物”，为活血调经、祛瘀止痛之要药；现代广泛用于冠心病、心绞痛等心脑血管疾病。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1000854",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "tanshinone IIA",
          "name_zh": "丹参酮 IIA",
          "category": "diterpene quinone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cryptotanshinone",
          "name_zh": "隐丹参酮",
          "category": "diterpene quinone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "salvianolic acid B",
          "name_zh": "丹酚酸 B",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "rosmarinic acid",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "丹参含脂溶性丹参酮类（丹参酮 IIA、隐丹参酮）与水溶性酚酸类（丹酚酸 B、迷迭香酸），药理证实其扩张冠脉、抗血小板聚集、抗氧化与抗肝纤维化作用。",
        "en": "Danshen contains lipophilic tanshinones (tanshinone IIA, cryptotanshinone) and hydrophilic phenolic acids (salvianolic acid B, rosmarinic acid); pharmacology confirms coronary vasodilation, antiplatelet, antioxidant and antifibrotic activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "冠心病心绞痛",
          "indication_en": "Coronary artery disease / angina pectoris",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "缺血性脑卒中急性期辅助",
          "indication_en": "Acute ischemic stroke adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性肝纤维化",
          "indication_en": "Chronic hepatic fibrosis",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》收录丹参注射液、复方丹参滴丸等中成药用于冠心病治疗。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists Danshen injection and Compound Danshen dripping pill for CAD."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "与华法林合用可能增加出血风险，需监测 INR；可能影响 CYP 代谢。",
          "note_en": "Co-administration with warfarin may increase bleeding risk; INR monitoring recommended; possible CYP-mediated interactions."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "抗血小板机制不同于乙酰水杨酸，通过抑制花生四烯酸代谢与降低血小板内 cAMP 水平实现。",
          "note_en": "Antiplatelet action differs from ASA, acting via arachidonic acid pathway inhibition and modulation of platelet cAMP."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "hou_po",
    "slug": "hou-po",
    "name_zh": "厚朴",
    "name_pinyin": "Hòu Pò",
    "name_en": "Magnolia Bark",
    "name_latin": "Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex",
    "category": "化湿药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "燥湿消痰",
        "en": "Dry dampness and resolve phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "下气除满",
        "en": "Direct qi downward and eliminate distention"
      },
      {
        "zh": "平喘",
        "en": "Calm wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宽中理气",
        "en": "Loosen the middle and regulate qi"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "湿滞伤中，脘痞吐泻",
        "en": "Damp stagnation injuring the middle with epigastric fullness, vomiting, and diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "食积气滞，腹胀便秘",
        "en": "Food stagnation with qi stagnation, abdominal distention, and constipation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰饮喘咳",
        "en": "Phlegm-rheum cough and wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "梅核气",
        "en": "Plum-pit qi (globus)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "七情郁结，胸脘痞满",
        "en": "Emotional constraint with fullness of the chest and epigastrium"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇慎用。气虚、津亏及阴虚者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g；或入丸散。大剂量行气除满可用至15g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生厚朴",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "燥性较烈，多外用或入丸散"
      },
      {
        "name": "姜厚朴",
        "method": "姜汁炙",
        "effect": "消除对咽喉的刺激，增强宽中和胃、降逆止呕之功，为临床主要炮制品"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "辛苦温燥，易伤津耗气，气虚、津亏、阴虚及孕妇慎用或忌用。生品对咽喉有刺激，内服必须姜炙。现代研究显示过量可致腹泻、呕吐。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，温。主中风伤寒，头痛寒热，惊悸气，血痹死肌，去三虫。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "木兰科植物厚朴或凹叶厚朴的干燥干皮、根皮及枝皮。归脾、胃、肺、大肠经。为行气化湿、消胀除满之要药；与苍术、陈皮相配为平胃散以燥湿运脾。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1042288",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "magnolol",
          "name_zh": "厚朴酚",
          "category": "biphenolic neolignan"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "honokiol",
          "name_zh": "和厚朴酚",
          "category": "biphenolic neolignan"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "beta-eudesmol",
          "category": "sesquiterpene (essential oil)"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "厚朴主含新木脂素类（厚朴酚、和厚朴酚）与挥发油，药理证实其抗菌、抗焦虑、抗炎、肌肉松弛与促进胃肠蠕动作用。",
        "en": "Houpo contains neolignans (magnolol, honokiol) and essential oil; pharmacology confirms antibacterial, anxiolytic, anti-inflammatory, muscle-relaxant and gastrointestinal prokinetic effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "湿阻中焦、脘腹胀满",
          "indication_en": "Damp obstruction of middle burner with abdominal distension",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "咳喘痰多（痰湿阻肺）",
          "indication_en": "Cough-wheezing with copious phlegm (phlegm-damp)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "焦虑及应激相关症状辅助",
          "indication_en": "Anxiety and stress-related symptoms (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以厚朴酚与和厚朴酚的总量作为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses the sum of magnolol and honokiol as assay marker."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "半夏厚朴汤、厚朴温中汤为经典方，用于气滞痰阻与中焦寒湿。",
          "note_en": "Banxia Houpo Tang and Houpo Wenzhong Tang are classical for qi stagnation–phlegm and cold-damp middle-burner."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "孕妇慎用；气虚津伤者不宜单用。",
          "note_en": "Caution in pregnancy; avoid as sole agent in qi deficiency with fluid damage."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "shan_zhu_yu",
    "slug": "shan-zhu-yu",
    "name_zh": "山茱萸",
    "name_pinyin": "Shān Zhū Yú",
    "name_en": "Asiatic Cornelian Cherry",
    "name_latin": "Corni Fructus",
    "category": "收涩药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sour",
      "astringent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补益肝肾",
        "en": "Tonify Liver and Kidney"
      },
      {
        "zh": "收涩固脱",
        "en": "Astringe and stem desertion"
      },
      {
        "zh": "涩精止遗",
        "en": "Secure essence and stop emission"
      },
      {
        "zh": "敛汗固崩",
        "en": "Astringe sweat and stanch uterine bleeding"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝肾不足，腰膝酸软，眩晕耳鸣",
        "en": "Liver-Kidney deficiency with weak low back and knees, dizziness and tinnitus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阳痿",
        "en": "Impotence from Kidney deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "遗精滑精",
        "en": "Spermatorrhea and seminal emission"
      },
      {
        "zh": "遗尿尿频",
        "en": "Enuresis and urinary frequency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "崩漏带下，月经过多",
        "en": "Uterine bleeding, leukorrhea, and profuse menstruation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "大汗虚脱，内热消渴",
        "en": "Profuse sweating with collapse and wasting-thirst disorder"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "命门火炽、素有湿热、小便不利者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "一般煎服6–12g；急救固脱可用20–30g"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生山茱萸",
        "method": "去核生用",
        "effect": "敛汗固脱力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒山茱萸",
        "method": "酒蒸",
        "effect": "补肝肾、固精缩尿作用增强"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "必须去核入药，果核能滑精（古训）。酸温收涩，命门火炽及湿热淋证忌用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味酸，平。主心下邪气寒热，温中，逐寒湿痹，去三虫。久服轻身。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "山茱萸科植物山茱萸的干燥成熟果肉。归肝、肾经。为补肝肾、涩精气之要药，六味地黄丸核心药对，张锡纯谓其能救脱。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q728125",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "loganin",
          "name_zh": "马钱苷",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "morroniside",
          "name_zh": "莫诺苷",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ursolic acid",
          "category": "triterpenoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cornuside",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "山茱萸主含环烯醚萜苷类（马钱苷、莫诺苷）及三萜类成分，具有抗氧化、免疫调节、降血糖及肾保护作用。",
        "en": "Cornus fruit contains iridoid glycosides (loganin, morroniside) and triterpenoids, with antioxidant, immunomodulatory, hypoglycemic and renoprotective activities."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "2型糖尿病早期肾病辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunctive therapy in early diabetic nephropathy",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "腰膝酸软、遗精滑泄",
          "indication_en": "Lumbar weakness, spermatorrhea and involuntary seminal loss",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "虚汗不止、崩漏下血",
          "indication_en": "Persistent spontaneous sweating and uterine bleeding",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "传统用于肝肾不足之腰膝酸软、头晕耳鸣，为六味地黄丸关键药味。",
          "note_en": "Traditionally used for Liver/Kidney deficiency with lumbar soreness and tinnitus; a key ingredient in Liu Wei Di Huang Wan."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "动物实验显示马钱苷可降低糖尿病大鼠肾小球硬化程度。",
          "note_en": "Animal studies show loganin reduces glomerulosclerosis in diabetic rats."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以马钱苷为含量测定指标，不得少于0.60%。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses loganin as the marker compound, requiring not less than 0.60%."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "mu_dan_pi",
    "slug": "mu-dan-pi",
    "name_zh": "牡丹皮",
    "name_pinyin": "Mǔ Dān Pí",
    "name_en": "Tree Peony Bark",
    "name_latin": "Moutan Cortex",
    "category": "清热凉血药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热凉血",
        "en": "Clear heat and cool blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "活血化瘀",
        "en": "Invigorate blood and transform stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "退虚热",
        "en": "Reduce deficiency heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消痈散结",
        "en": "Reduce abscesses and dissipate nodules"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "热入营血，温毒发斑",
        "en": "Heat entering ying and blood levels with maculopapular rash"
      },
      {
        "zh": "吐血衄血",
        "en": "Hematemesis and epistaxis from blood heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴虚发热，夜热早凉，无汗骨蒸",
        "en": "Yin-deficiency fever, fever at night cooling by morning, steaming bone tidal fever without sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "经闭痛经，癥瘕积聚",
        "en": "Amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and abdominal masses from blood stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "跌打伤痛",
        "en": "Traumatic injury with pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痈肿疮毒，肠痈腹痛",
        "en": "Carbuncles, sores, and intestinal abscess with abdominal pain"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "血虚有寒、月经过多及孕妇不宜服用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "清热凉血、退虚热生用；活血化瘀酒炒；止血炒炭"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生牡丹皮",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清热凉血、退虚热之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒牡丹皮",
        "method": "酒炒",
        "effect": "活血化瘀通经作用增强"
      },
      {
        "name": "丹皮炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "凉血止血，用于血热出血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性凉而活血，脾胃虚寒便溏者慎用。孕妇禁用（活血可致堕胎）。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味辛，寒。主寒热中风，瘛疭、痉、惊痫邪气，除癥坚瘀血留舍肠胃，安五脏，疗痈疮。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "毛茛科植物牡丹的干燥根皮。归心、肝、肾经。既善清营血分实热，又能退阴分虚热（无汗骨蒸），为六味地黄丸退虚热之主药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q163018",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "paeonol",
          "name_zh": "丹皮酚",
          "category": "phenolic",
          "notes": "principal marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "paeoniflorin",
          "name_zh": "芍药苷",
          "category": "monoterpene glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "paeonoside",
          "name_zh": "丹皮苷",
          "category": "phenolic glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "tannins",
          "name_zh": "鞣质",
          "category": "polyphenol"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "牡丹皮含丹皮酚、芍药苷及鞣质，具抗炎、抗菌、解热、镇痛、抗凝及降压作用。",
        "en": "Moutan bark contains paeonol, paeoniflorin, and tannins with anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antipyretic, analgesic, antiplatelet, and antihypertensive effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "阴虚发热与无汗骨蒸",
          "indication_en": "Yin-deficiency fever and steaming bone",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "血热出血与皮肤过敏性炎症",
          "indication_en": "Blood-heat bleeding and allergic dermatitis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "血瘀经闭痛经辅助",
          "indication_en": "Blood-stasis amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "丹皮酚具抗炎、解热、镇静及抗血小板作用；动物实验显示降压效应。",
          "note_en": "Paeonol shows anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, sedative, and antiplatelet activity; animal studies show antihypertensive effects."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "牡丹皮清热凉血、活血化瘀，无汗骨蒸与血热妄行常用。",
          "note_en": "Clears heat, cools blood, and invigorates blood — used for steaming bone without sweat and for blood-heat bleeding."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "孕妇及月经过多者慎用——可能增强抗凝及抗血小板药物效应。",
          "note_en": "Use caution in pregnancy and menorrhagia — may potentiate anticoagulant/antiplatelet drugs."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定丹皮酚含量不少于 1.2%。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies paeonol content ≥1.2%."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "ze_xie",
    "slug": "ze-xie",
    "name_zh": "泽泻",
    "name_pinyin": "Zé Xiè",
    "name_en": "Water Plantain Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Alismatis Rhizoma",
    "category": "利水渗湿药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bland"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "利水渗湿",
        "en": "Promote urination and percolate dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泄热",
        "en": "Drain heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化浊降脂",
        "en": "Transform turbidity and reduce lipids"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "小便不利，水肿胀满",
        "en": "Dysuria with edema and distention"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泄泻尿少",
        "en": "Diarrhea with scanty urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰饮眩晕",
        "en": "Phlegm-rheum with dizziness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热淋涩痛",
        "en": "Heat strangury with painful urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "高脂血症",
        "en": "Hyperlipidemia (modern clinical use)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "肾虚精滑、无湿热者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–10g，大剂量可用至30g（降脂、利水）"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生泽泻",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "利水渗湿、泄热作用较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐泽泻",
        "method": "盐水炒",
        "effect": "引药下行，增强泻肾火之力，多用于阴虚火旺证"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "久服或大量服用可耗伤阴精。近年有泽泻肝毒性报道，长期使用应监测肝肾功能。肾虚滑精者忌用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，寒。主风寒湿痹，乳难，消水，养五脏，益气力，肥健。久服耳目聪明，不饥延年，轻身面生光。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "泽泻科植物东方泽泻或泽泻的干燥块茎。归肾、膀胱经。六味地黄丸三泻之一，既能利湿又能泄肾火，为泄火存阴之妙品。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q21063",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "alisol A",
          "name_zh": "泽泻醇 A",
          "category": "protostane triterpene",
          "notes": "diuretic and hypolipidemic marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "alisol B 23-acetate",
          "name_zh": "23-乙酰泽泻醇 B",
          "category": "protostane triterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "alisol C 23-acetate",
          "category": "protostane triterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "alisma polysaccharides",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "泽泻主含泽泻醇 A、B、C 等原萜烷型三萜，具有利尿、降血脂、降血糖、抗脂肪肝及抗动脉粥样硬化作用。",
        "en": "Alisma rhizome contains protostane triterpenes (alisols A, B and C) with diuretic, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, antisteatotic and antiatherosclerotic activities."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "水湿内停之水肿、小便不利",
          "indication_en": "Edema and dysuria from internal water-damp retention",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "高脂血症、脂肪肝辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for hyperlipidemia and fatty liver",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "湿热淋证",
          "indication_en": "Damp-heat lin (painful urinary) syndromes",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以 23-乙酰泽泻醇 B 和 23-乙酰泽泻醇 C 为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses 23-acetyl alisol B and 23-acetyl alisol C as assay markers."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述泽泻醇类在动物模型中显著降低血清胆固醇和甘油三酯。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite alisols significantly reducing serum cholesterol and triglycerides in animal models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "dang_shen",
    "slug": "dang-shen",
    "name_zh": "党参",
    "name_pinyin": "Dǎng Shēn",
    "name_en": "Codonopsis Root",
    "name_latin": "Codonopsis Radix",
    "category": "补气药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "健脾益肺",
        "en": "Fortify the Spleen and augment the Lung"
      },
      {
        "zh": "补中益气",
        "en": "Tonify the middle and augment qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "养血生津",
        "en": "Nourish blood and generate fluids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "扶正祛邪",
        "en": "Support upright qi and expel pathogenic factors"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脾肺气虚，食少倦怠",
        "en": "Spleen and Lung qi deficiency with reduced appetite and fatigue"
      },
      {
        "zh": "咳嗽气短，虚喘",
        "en": "Cough and shortness of breath, deficiency wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气血两虚，面色萎黄，心悸气短",
        "en": "Dual deficiency of qi and blood with sallow complexion, palpitations, and shortness of breath"
      },
      {
        "zh": "津伤口渴，内热消渴",
        "en": "Fluid damage with thirst, internal heat wasting-thirst disorder"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气虚外感",
        "en": "Exterior invasion with underlying qi deficiency"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "实证、热证禁服。不宜与藜芦同用(参照人参)。气滞、肝火盛者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 30,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服9–30g。补气力较人参为缓，故常用量宜大；轻症9–15g，重症可至30g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生党参",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "养阴生津，补肺止咳"
      },
      {
        "name": "米炒党参",
        "method": "米炒",
        "effect": "健脾益气，和胃止泻"
      },
      {
        "name": "蜜炙党参",
        "method": "蜜炙",
        "effect": "增强润肺补气、益气生津之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "甘平补气，实证、邪盛者不宜。现代研究未见明显毒性，常规用量安全。与藜芦传统相反。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "人参，味甘，微寒。主补五脏，安精神，定魂魄，止惊悸，除邪气，明目，开心益智。",
        "source_chapter": "依古代本草党参入药较晚，清代《本草从新》始载；此处引《神农本草经》人参条以示其补气渊源。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "桔梗科植物党参、素花党参或川党参的干燥根。归脾、肺经。为平补脾肺之要药，古方中人参多可以党参代之(虚寒厥逆、脱证仍需人参)；现代临床广泛用作人参之平和替代品。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1076269",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "lobetyolin",
          "name_zh": "党参炔苷",
          "category": "polyacetylene glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "codonopsis polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "党参多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "tangshenoside I",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid glycoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "党参主含党参多糖、党参炔苷与皂苷类成分，药理显示其增强免疫、抗疲劳、调节胃肠功能与造血支持作用。",
        "en": "Dangshen contains Codonopsis polysaccharides, lobetyolin and saponins; pharmacology shows immune enhancement, antifatigue, gastrointestinal modulation and hematopoietic support."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾胃气虚、倦怠乏力",
          "indication_en": "Spleen-stomach qi deficiency with fatigue",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性胃炎、功能性消化不良",
          "indication_en": "Chronic gastritis and functional dyspepsia",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "贫血及化疗后气血虚弱辅助",
          "indication_en": "Anemia and post-chemotherapy qi-blood deficiency (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以党参炔苷作为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses lobetyolin as the HPLC assay marker."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "传统作为人参的替代品以补中益气，但作用较缓和。",
          "note_en": "Traditionally used as a milder substitute for ginseng to tonify middle qi."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "实证、热证及肝火旺者不宜单独大量使用。",
          "note_en": "Avoid single high-dose use in excess heat or liver-fire patterns."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "mang_xiao",
    "slug": "mang-xiao",
    "name_zh": "芒硝",
    "name_pinyin": "Máng Xiāo",
    "name_en": "Mirabilite (Glauber's Salt)",
    "name_latin": "Natrii Sulfas",
    "category": "攻下药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "salty",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "泻下通便",
        "en": "Drain downward and unblock the bowels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润燥软坚",
        "en": "Moisten dryness and soften hardness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清火消肿",
        "en": "Clear fire and reduce swelling"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "实热积滞，腹满胀痛，大便燥结",
        "en": "Excess heat accumulation with abdominal distention, pain, and dry hard stools"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肠痈肿痛",
        "en": "Intestinal abscess with swelling and pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "咽喉肿痛，口舌生疮",
        "en": "Throat swelling, sores of mouth and tongue"
      },
      {
        "zh": "目赤肿痛",
        "en": "Red swollen painful eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外用治乳痈初起、痔疮肿痛",
        "en": "Topical use for early breast abscess and hemorrhoid swelling"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇忌用。脾胃虚寒及阴虚体质者忌服。哺乳期妇女慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服宜溶入煎好的药汁或开水中冲服，不宜入煎；外用适量，化水涂敷"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "芒硝",
        "method": "精制结晶",
        "effect": "天然硫酸钠经煮炼结晶而成，生品即入药"
      },
      {
        "name": "玄明粉",
        "method": "风化",
        "effect": "芒硝置阴凉干燥处风化为白色粉末，药性较和缓，宜用于口腔咽喉疾患"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含硫酸钠，大量服用可引起电解质紊乱（钠潴留、低钾）。心肾功能不全、水肿、高血压者慎用。不宜与三棱同用（十九畏：芒硝畏三棱）。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦，寒。主百病，除寒热邪气，逐六腑积聚，结固留癖，能化七十二种石。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "硫酸盐类矿物芒硝族芒硝经精制而成的结晶体，主含含水硫酸钠。归胃、大肠经。为咸寒润下软坚之要药，与大黄相须为用（大承气汤）攻下力最著。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q211737",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "sodium sulfate decahydrate (Glauber's salt)",
          "name_zh": "硫酸钠（含水芒硝）",
          "category": "inorganic salt",
          "notes": "principal component"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "magnesium sulfate (trace)",
          "name_zh": "硫酸镁（微量）",
          "category": "inorganic salt"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "芒硝主含硫酸钠，为渗透性盐类泻剂，并具外用消炎消肿作用。",
        "en": "Mirabilite is chiefly sodium sulfate — an osmotic saline laxative with topical anti-inflammatory and decongestant uses."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "实热便秘",
          "indication_en": "Excess-heat constipation",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "术前肠道准备（盐类泻剂）",
          "indication_en": "Preoperative bowel preparation (saline laxative)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "乳腺炎外敷消肿",
          "indication_en": "Topical reduction of mastitis swelling",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "硫酸钠在肠道不被吸收，通过渗透作用保留水分而致泻。",
          "note_en": "Sodium sulfate is not absorbed in the gut and produces osmotic retention of water to induce purgation."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "孕妇禁用——刺激肠道可能引发子宫收缩；脱水、电解质紊乱、肾功能不全者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Contraindicated in pregnancy — intestinal irritation may trigger uterine contraction; caution with dehydration, electrolyte disturbance, and renal impairment."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "芒硝咸苦大寒，软坚泻下，与大黄相须用于阳明腑实证。",
          "note_en": "Salty-bitter and very cold — softens hardness and purges; paired with rhubarb for yangming organ excess."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定 Na₂SO₄·10H₂O 含量不少于 99.0%。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia requires Na₂SO₄·10H₂O content ≥99.0%."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "zhi_shi",
    "slug": "zhi-shi",
    "name_zh": "枳实",
    "name_pinyin": "Zhǐ Shí",
    "name_en": "Immature Bitter Orange",
    "name_latin": "Aurantii Fructus Immaturus",
    "category": "理气药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent",
      "sour"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "破气消积",
        "en": "Break up qi and disperse accumulation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化痰除痞",
        "en": "Transform phlegm and eliminate focal distention"
      },
      {
        "zh": "行气止痛",
        "en": "Move qi and alleviate pain"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "积滞内停，痞满胀痛",
        "en": "Accumulation with focal distention, fullness, and pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "大便不通",
        "en": "Constipation from qi stagnation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "食积不化，泻痢后重",
        "en": "Food stagnation, dysentery with tenesmus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰浊阻滞，胸痹结胸",
        "en": "Phlegm turbidity blocking the chest with chest bi and chest bind"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脏器下垂（现代应用）",
        "en": "Visceroptosis (modern clinical application)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇及脾胃虚弱、气虚者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g，大剂量可用至15–30g（治脏器下垂）；破气消积宜生用，和胃消痞宜麸炒"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生枳实",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "破气消积之力峻猛"
      },
      {
        "name": "麸枳实",
        "method": "麸炒",
        "effect": "缓和峻烈之性，长于理气和胃，消食化痰"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "破气力强，孕妇及气血虚弱者慎用。大剂量可致胃肠不适。现代研究示其有强心升压作用，过敏者慎用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，寒。主大风在皮肤中，如麻豆苦痒，除寒热结，止痢，长肌肉，利五脏，益气轻身。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "芸香科植物酸橙及其栽培变种或甜橙的干燥幼果。归脾、胃、大肠经。为破气消积之要药，与大黄、芒硝、厚朴同用（大承气汤）治阳明腑实证。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q147096",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "synephrine",
          "name_zh": "辛弗林",
          "category": "phenylethylamine alkaloid",
          "notes": "alpha-adrenergic agonist; cardiovascular caution"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "N-methyltyramine",
          "category": "phenylethylamine alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "hesperidin",
          "name_zh": "橙皮苷",
          "category": "flavanone glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "naringin",
          "name_zh": "柚皮苷",
          "category": "flavanone glycoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "枳实含辛弗林、N-甲基酪胺等拟交感胺及黄酮类成分，具有促进胃肠蠕动、升压、强心及改善子宫脱垂的作用；心血管疾病及高血压患者慎用。",
        "en": "Citrus aurantium immature fruit contains sympathomimetic amines (synephrine, N-methyltyramine) and flavonoids producing prokinetic, pressor, cardiotonic and uterine/rectal prolapse-reducing effects; caution is warranted in cardiovascular disease and hypertension."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "胃肠积滞之脘腹胀满、便秘",
          "indication_en": "Epigastric distension and constipation from food/qi stagnation",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "胃下垂、子宫脱垂、脱肛",
          "indication_en": "Gastroptosis, uterine prolapse and rectal prolapse",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "休克辅助升压",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct pressor support in shock",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 警示辛弗林与单胺氧化酶抑制剂及咖啡因合用有心血管风险。",
          "note_en": "Brinker warns of cardiovascular risk when synephrine is combined with MAO inhibitors or caffeine."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述枳实注射液在中国用于感染性休克升压，具辛弗林拟交感作用基础。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite Zhi Shi injection used in China as a pressor in septic shock, mediated by synephrine's sympathomimetic action."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以辛弗林和橙皮苷为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses synephrine and hesperidin as assay markers."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "wu_wei_zi",
    "slug": "wu-wei-zi",
    "name_zh": "五味子",
    "name_pinyin": "Wǔ Wèi Zǐ",
    "name_en": "Schisandra Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Schisandrae Chinensis Fructus",
    "category": "收涩药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sour",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "收敛固涩",
        "en": "Astringe and secure"
      },
      {
        "zh": "益气生津",
        "en": "Augment qi and generate fluids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "补肾宁心",
        "en": "Tonify the Kidney and quiet the Heart"
      },
      {
        "zh": "敛肺止咳",
        "en": "Astringe the Lung and stop cough"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "久嗽虚喘",
        "en": "Chronic cough and wheezing from Lung deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "自汗，盗汗",
        "en": "Spontaneous sweating and night sweats"
      },
      {
        "zh": "遗精滑精",
        "en": "Spermatorrhea and seminal emission"
      },
      {
        "zh": "久泻不止",
        "en": "Chronic unremitting diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "心悸失眠，多梦健忘",
        "en": "Palpitations, insomnia, excessive dreaming, and forgetfulness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "津伤口渴，内热消渴",
        "en": "Fluid damage with thirst and wasting-thirst disorder"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "外有表邪、内有实热、咳嗽初起、麻疹初发者均忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 2,
      "max": 6,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服2–6g；研末服每次1–3g；敛肺止咳宜生用，补肾涩精宜蜜炙或醋炙"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生五味子",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "敛肺止咳、生津敛汗之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "醋五味子",
        "method": "醋炙",
        "effect": "增强酸涩收敛之性，涩精止泻"
      },
      {
        "name": "蜜五味子",
        "method": "蜜炙",
        "effect": "补益作用增强，缓和酸性"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "现代研究示有降转氨酶作用，但过量可致胃肠刺激、反酸。表邪未解者服用易留邪。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味酸，温。主益气，咳逆上气，劳伤羸瘦，补不足，强阴，益男子精。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "木兰科植物五味子（北五味子）的干燥成熟果实。归肺、心、肾经。皮肉甘酸，核中辛苦，五味俱全而酸味最胜，为敛肺滋肾之要药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q900986",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "schisandrin A (schizandrin)",
          "name_zh": "五味子甲素",
          "category": "dibenzocyclooctadiene lignan"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "schisandrin B",
          "name_zh": "五味子乙素",
          "category": "lignan"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "schisandrin C",
          "category": "lignan"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "gomisin A",
          "category": "lignan"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "五味子主含联苯环辛烯型木脂素（五味子素甲乙丙、戈米辛等），具有保肝降酶、镇静、适应原样及抗氧化作用。",
        "en": "Schisandra fruit contains dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans (schisandrins A/B/C, gomisins) with hepatoprotective, transaminase-lowering, sedative, adaptogenic and antioxidant effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性肝炎血清转氨酶升高",
          "indication_en": "Chronic hepatitis with elevated serum transaminases",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "失眠多梦、心悸",
          "indication_en": "Insomnia with dream-disturbed sleep and palpitations",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肺肾虚咳、自汗盗汗",
          "indication_en": "Lung-Kidney deficient cough and spontaneous/night sweats",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "联苯双酯（双环醇）为五味子丙素的合成衍生物，收录于《中国药典》用于保肝降酶。",
          "note_en": "Bifendate/bicyclol, a synthetic derivative of schisandrin C, is listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia as a hepatoprotective agent."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "可诱导 CYP3A4 代谢，可能降低他克莫司、环孢素等免疫抑制剂血药浓度。",
          "note_en": "Induces CYP3A4; may reduce plasma levels of tacrolimus, cyclosporine and related immunosuppressants."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以五味子醇甲（五味子素甲）为含量测定指标，不得少于0.40%。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses schisandrin (schizandrin) as the assay marker, requiring not less than 0.40%."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "zi_su_ye",
    "slug": "zi-su-ye",
    "name_zh": "紫苏叶",
    "name_pinyin": "Zǐ Sū Yè",
    "name_en": "Perilla Leaf",
    "name_latin": "Perillae Folium",
    "category": "辛温解表药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "解表散寒",
        "en": "Release the exterior and disperse cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "行气和胃",
        "en": "Move qi and harmonize the stomach"
      },
      {
        "zh": "安胎",
        "en": "Calm the fetus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解鱼蟹毒",
        "en": "Resolve fish and crab toxicity"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风寒感冒，咳嗽呕恶",
        "en": "Wind-cold common cold with cough, nausea, and vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾胃气滞，胸闷呕吐",
        "en": "Spleen and Stomach qi stagnation with chest oppression and vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "妊娠恶阻，胎动不安",
        "en": "Morning sickness and restless fetus in pregnancy"
      },
      {
        "zh": "鱼蟹中毒，腹痛吐泻",
        "en": "Fish or crab food poisoning with abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhea"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "温病及气弱表虚者忌用。阴虚内热者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服5–9g，不宜久煎，宜后下；外用适量，煎水洗"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "紫苏叶",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "解表散寒、行气宽中、安胎解毒"
      },
      {
        "name": "苏梗",
        "method": "同用不同部位",
        "effect": "取用紫苏梗（茎）则行气宽中、止痛安胎作用更著，发表力弱"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含挥发油（紫苏醛等），久煎则有效成分挥发。气虚、阴虚及温病热盛者忌用。少数人可有接触性皮炎。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "classification": "常用药物",
        "passage": "紫苏叶，治伤寒头痛，憎寒壮热，咳嗽气喘，中寒呕逆等证。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "唇形科植物紫苏的干燥叶或带嫩枝。归肺、脾经。为辛温解表兼行气宽中之要药，常用于风寒表证兼气滞胸闷或胃气上逆者（香苏散、参苏饮）。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1076038",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "perillaldehyde",
          "name_zh": "紫苏醛",
          "category": "monoterpene aldehyde",
          "notes": "principal volatile oil component, antimicrobial and antiemetic"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "rosmarinic acid",
          "name_zh": "迷迭香酸",
          "category": "phenolic acid",
          "notes": "anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "luteolin",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "perilla ketone",
          "category": "furan ketone"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "紫苏叶挥发油以紫苏醛为主，另含迷迭香酸和木犀草素等酚类成分，具有解热、抗过敏、抗菌、解痉及安胎止呕的药理作用。",
        "en": "Perilla leaf volatile oil is dominated by perillaldehyde, with rosmarinic acid and luteolin providing antipyretic, antiallergic, antimicrobial, antispasmodic and antiemetic/fetus-calming activities."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "风寒感冒伴气滞胸闷",
          "indication_en": "Wind-cold common cold with qi stagnation chest oppression",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "妊娠恶阻、胎动不安",
          "indication_en": "Morning sickness and restless fetus",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "过敏性疾病（鼻炎、皮炎）辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for allergic disorders (rhinitis, dermatitis)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "鱼蟹中毒",
          "indication_en": "Fish and crab food poisoning",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述迷迭香酸在 IgE 介导的过敏反应模型中显著抑制肥大细胞脱颗粒。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite rosmarinic acid markedly inhibiting mast cell degranulation in IgE-mediated allergy models."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出紫苏叶发散风寒、行气宽中、安胎、解鱼蟹毒，四大功效并行。",
          "note_en": "Bensky lists Zi Su Ye's four core functions: release wind-cold, move qi and soothe the middle, calm the fetus and detoxify fish/crab poisoning."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "fang_feng",
    "slug": "fang-feng",
    "name_zh": "防风",
    "name_pinyin": "Fáng Fēng",
    "name_en": "Saposhnikovia Root",
    "name_latin": "Saposhnikoviae Radix",
    "category": "辛温解表药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "祛风解表",
        "en": "Dispel wind and release the exterior"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胜湿止痛",
        "en": "Overcome dampness and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止痉",
        "en": "Stop spasm and tremor"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止泻",
        "en": "Check diarrhea (for wind-type Spleen-Liver diarrhea)"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "外感风寒，头痛身痛",
        "en": "Wind-cold exterior invasion with headache and body aches"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风湿痹痛，肢体拘挛",
        "en": "Wind-damp bi pain with limb contractures"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风疹瘙痒",
        "en": "Wind rash with itching"
      },
      {
        "zh": "破伤风，角弓反张",
        "en": "Tetanus and opisthotonos"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝脾不和，腹痛泄泻",
        "en": "Liver-Spleen disharmony with abdominal pain and diarrhea"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴血亏虚、热病动风发痉者不宜使用。血虚痉急、头痛不因风邪者禁用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 4,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服4–9g；止泻可炒用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生防风",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "祛风解表、胜湿止痛力强"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒防风",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "缓和辛散之性，长于止泻"
      },
      {
        "name": "防风炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "止血止泻"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "辛温发散，阴血亏虚、热病动风及热极生风者不宜。现代研究未见明显毒性。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，温。主大风头眩痛，恶风，风邪目盲无所见，风行周身，骨节疼痹，烦满。久服轻身。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "伞形科植物防风的干燥根。归膀胱、肝、脾经。为治风通用之品，被誉为“风药中之润剂”、“治风之仙药”；与黄芪、白术相伍即玉屏风散以固表止汗。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q6672500",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "prim-O-glucosylcimifugin",
          "name_zh": "升麻素苷",
          "category": "chromone glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "5-O-methylvisammioside",
          "name_zh": "5-O-甲基维斯阿米醇苷",
          "category": "chromone glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "sec-o-glucosylhamaudol",
          "category": "chromone glycoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "防风主含色原酮类（升麻素苷、5-O-甲基维斯阿米醇苷）与挥发油，药理示其解热、镇痛、抗炎、抗过敏与免疫调节作用。",
        "en": "Fangfeng contains chromone glycosides (prim-O-glucosylcimifugin, 5-O-methylvisammioside) and essential oil; pharmacology shows antipyretic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic and immunomodulatory effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "外感风寒或风热表证",
          "indication_en": "Exterior wind-cold or wind-heat syndromes",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "风湿痹痛、关节疼痛",
          "indication_en": "Wind-damp arthralgia and joint pain",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "荨麻疹、过敏性皮肤病",
          "indication_en": "Urticaria and allergic skin disorders",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以升麻素苷与 5-O-甲基维斯阿米醇苷之和作为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses the sum of prim-O-glucosylcimifugin and 5-O-methylvisammioside as assay marker."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "与黄芪、白术配伍成玉屏风散，为经典扶正固表方。",
          "note_en": "Combined with huangqi and baizhu in Yu Ping Feng San, a classical immune-supporting exterior-stabilizing formula."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "阴虚火旺、血虚发痉者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Use cautiously in yin-deficiency fire or blood-deficiency convulsions."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "cang_zhu",
    "slug": "cang-zhu",
    "name_zh": "苍术",
    "name_pinyin": "Cāng Zhú",
    "name_en": "Atractylodes Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Atractylodis Rhizoma",
    "category": "化湿药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "燥湿健脾",
        "en": "Dry dampness and fortify the Spleen"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛风散寒",
        "en": "Dispel wind and disperse cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "明目",
        "en": "Brighten the eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "发汗解表",
        "en": "Induce sweating and release the exterior"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "湿阻中焦，脘腹胀满",
        "en": "Dampness obstructing the middle jiao with epigastric and abdominal distention"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泄泻，水肿",
        "en": "Diarrhea and edema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风湿痹痛",
        "en": "Wind-damp bi pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外感风寒挟湿",
        "en": "Wind-cold exterior invasion with dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "夜盲，眼目昏涩",
        "en": "Night blindness and blurred vision"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚内热、气虚多汗、血虚津亏者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–9g；燥湿运脾多用3–6g；祛风湿可用至9–15g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生苍术",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "燥湿、祛风湿之力较胜"
      },
      {
        "name": "麸炒苍术",
        "method": "麸炒",
        "effect": "缓和燥性，增强健脾和胃之功"
      },
      {
        "name": "焦苍术",
        "method": "炒焦",
        "effect": "燥湿止泻"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "辛温香燥，燥性较烈，易伤津耗液。阴虚内热、津液亏虚者不宜。现代研究未见明显毒性。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "术，味苦，温。主风寒湿痹，死肌，痉疸，止汗，除热，消食。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物茅苍术或北苍术的干燥根茎。归脾、胃、肝经。燥湿之力胜于白术，为治湿阻中焦之要药；苍术白术同源而功效有别，苍术偏于燥湿运脾，白术偏于补脾益气。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q5202812",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "atractylodin",
          "name_zh": "苍术素",
          "category": "polyacetylene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "β-eudesmol",
          "name_zh": "β-桉叶醇",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "hinesol",
          "name_zh": "茅术醇",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "苍术的主要活性成分为挥发油（苍术素、茅术醇、β-桉叶醇），具有燥湿健脾、促胃肠动力、抗溃疡及抑菌作用；传统上燃烧用于环境空气消毒。",
        "en": "Atractylodis Rhizoma contains volatile constituents (atractylodin, hinesol, β-eudesmol), with aromatic damp-transforming, prokinetic, antiulcer, and antimicrobial activity; traditionally burned for indoor air disinfection."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾胃湿困之脘腹胀满、食欲不振",
          "indication_en": "Damp obstructing the spleen and stomach with distension and anorexia",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "风寒湿痹",
          "indication_en": "Wind-cold-damp bi syndromes (joint pain)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "夜盲症（传统用于维生素A缺乏）",
          "indication_en": "Night blindness (traditionally for vitamin A deficiency)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出苍术与白术功效相近，但苍术燥性更烈，主燥湿；白术偏于健脾补气。",
          "note_en": "Bensky distinguishes Cang Zhu as more strongly drying (used chiefly for dampness) while Bai Zhu is more tonifying to spleen qi."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学记载苍术挥发油对流感病毒及多种细菌有抑制作用，为传统苍术烟熏消毒的药理基础。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen report that Cang Zhu volatile oil inhibits influenza virus and multiple bacteria, providing a pharmacological basis for traditional smoke fumigation."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "xi_xin",
    "slug": "xi-xin",
    "name_zh": "细辛",
    "name_pinyin": "Xì Xīn",
    "name_en": "Asarum",
    "name_latin": "Asari Radix et Rhizoma",
    "category": "辛温解表药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "解表散寒",
        "en": "Release the exterior and dissipate cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛风止痛",
        "en": "Dispel wind and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通窍",
        "en": "Unblock the orifices"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温肺化饮",
        "en": "Warm the Lung and transform thin mucus"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风寒表证，尤宜阳虚外感",
        "en": "Wind-cold exterior patterns, especially with underlying yang deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "头痛，牙痛，痹痛",
        "en": "Headache, toothache, and painful obstruction"
      },
      {
        "zh": "鼻渊鼻塞",
        "en": "Nasal congestion and deep-source nasal discharge"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒饮伏肺，咳嗽气喘，痰多清稀",
        "en": "Cold thin mucus lodged in the Lung with cough, wheezing, and copious watery sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风冷湿痹，腰膝冷痛",
        "en": "Wind-cold-damp painful obstruction with cold pain of the lower back and knees"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "气虚多汗、阴虚阳亢头痛、阴虚肺热咳嗽者忌用。反藜芦（十八反）。内服煎汤一般不过钱（不超过3g），用量过大可致中毒。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 1,
      "max": 3,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服入汤剂一般1–3g，研末吞服0.5–1g；古有“细辛不过钱”之说，过量可致呼吸抑制及中毒。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生细辛",
        "pinyin": "Shēng Xì Xīn",
        "method": "除去杂质，喷淋清水，稍润，切段，阴干生用",
        "effect": "解表散寒，温肺化饮，通窍止痛"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "细辛含黄樟醚（safrole）和马兜铃酸类成分，过量可引起恶心、呕吐、头痛、呼吸困难甚至呼吸麻痹。现行药典规定根及根茎入药，不用地上部分。孕妇慎用；不可与藜芦配伍。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味辛，温。主咳逆，头痛脑动，百节拘挛，风湿痹痛，死肌。久服明目，利九窍，轻身长年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "马兜铃科植物北细辛、汉城细辛或华细辛的干燥根及根茎。归肺、肾、心经。辛温走窜，上行可散头面风寒而通鼻窍止头痛，内行可温肺化饮以平喘止咳，外行可搜剔筋骨风湿而止痹痛，为散寒止痛、温肺化饮之要药。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "methyl eugenol",
          "name_zh": "甲基丁香酚",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid (essential oil)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "safrole",
          "name_zh": "黄樟醚",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid (toxic)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "asarinin",
          "category": "lignan"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "higenamine",
          "category": "alkaloid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "细辛主含挥发油（甲基丁香酚、黄樟醚等）及木脂素，具有镇痛、解热、局部麻醉及抗炎作用；有潜在毒性。",
        "en": "Asarum herb contains volatile phenylpropanoids (methyl eugenol, safrole) and lignans, with analgesic, antipyretic, local anesthetic and anti-inflammatory effects; potentially toxic."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "风寒头痛、牙痛、鼻渊",
          "indication_en": "Wind-cold headache, toothache and sinus congestion",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "寒饮伏肺之咳喘",
          "indication_en": "Cold-rheum Lung cough and wheezing",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》2005年版起已将细辛法定药用部位由全草改为根及根茎，以降低地上部分马兜铃酸暴露；规定含马兜铃酸I不得超过0.001%。",
          "note_en": "Since 2005, the Chinese Pharmacopoeia has restricted official Xi Xin to root and rhizome (not whole plant) to reduce aristolochic acid exposure, with a limit of aristolochic acid I not exceeding 0.001%."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "黄樟醚具肝毒及潜在致癌性；马兜铃酸有明确肾毒性及致癌性，剂量与时间均应严格控制。",
          "note_en": "Safrole is hepatotoxic and potentially carcinogenic; aristolochic acid is definitively nephrotoxic and carcinogenic—dose and duration must be strictly controlled."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "'细辛不过钱'为传统用量警戒，通常每剂不超过3g。",
          "note_en": "The adage 'Xi Xin no more than one qian' reflects traditional dose caution, generally not exceeding 3 g per dose."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "bai_zhi",
    "slug": "bai-zhi",
    "name_zh": "白芷",
    "name_pinyin": "Bái Zhǐ",
    "name_en": "Dahurian Angelica Root",
    "name_latin": "Angelicae Dahuricae Radix",
    "category": "辛温解表药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "解表散寒",
        "en": "Release the exterior and dissipate cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛风止痛",
        "en": "Dispel wind and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通鼻窍",
        "en": "Unblock the nasal passages"
      },
      {
        "zh": "燥湿止带",
        "en": "Dry dampness and stop vaginal discharge"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消肿排脓",
        "en": "Reduce swelling and expel pus"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风寒感冒，头痛，眉棱骨痛",
        "en": "Wind-cold common cold with headache and supraorbital pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阳明头痛、牙龈肿痛",
        "en": "Yangming (frontal) headache and toothache with gum swelling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "鼻渊鼻塞，流涕不止",
        "en": "Deep-source nasal congestion with persistent discharge"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒湿带下",
        "en": "Cold-damp vaginal discharge"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疮疡肿毒初起或脓成不溃",
        "en": "Early-stage sores and abscesses, or suppurative lesions that fail to drain"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚血热及痈疽已溃、脓出通畅者不宜用。辛香温燥，阴虚火旺者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤3–10g；外用适量，研末撒或调敷。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生白芷",
        "pinyin": "Shēng Bái Zhǐ",
        "method": "除去杂质，大小分开，略浸，润透切片，干燥",
        "effect": "解表散寒，祛风止痛，通窍燥湿"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含呋喃香豆素类成分，大量使用可致光敏反应及轻度毒性；孕妇慎用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味辛，温。主女人漏下赤白，血闭阴肿，寒热，风头侵目泪出，长肌肤，润泽，可作面脂。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "伞形科植物白芷或杭白芷的干燥根。归肺、胃、大肠经。辛散温通，芳香上达，善入阳明，为治阳明头痛、眉棱骨痛与鼻渊之要药；兼能燥湿止带、消肿排脓。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "imperatorin",
          "name_zh": "欧前胡素",
          "category": "furanocoumarin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "isoimperatorin",
          "name_zh": "异欧前胡素",
          "category": "furanocoumarin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "byakangelicin and byakangelicol",
          "name_zh": "白当归素",
          "category": "furanocoumarin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "essential oil",
          "name_zh": "挥发油",
          "category": "volatile oil"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "白芷富含呋喃香豆素类（欧前胡素、异欧前胡素、白当归素）及挥发油，具有解热、镇痛、抗炎、抗菌及光敏作用。",
        "en": "Angelicae dahuricae Radix is rich in furanocoumarins (imperatorin, isoimperatorin, byakangelicin) and essential oil, with antipyretic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and photosensitizing activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "头痛（尤其前额痛及牙痛）",
          "indication_en": "Headache (especially frontal) and toothache",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "鼻渊（鼻窦炎）",
          "indication_en": "Rhinitis and sinusitis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "银屑病（呋喃香豆素光化学疗法原料）",
          "indication_en": "Psoriasis (as furanocoumarin source for photochemotherapy)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出白芷挥发油及香豆素成分具有抗炎、镇痛和抑菌作用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that the essential oil and coumarins exhibit anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antimicrobial activity."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 警示白芷中的呋喃香豆素可引起光敏反应，服用后应避免过度日晒。",
          "note_en": "Brinker warns that furanocoumarins in Bai Zhi can cause photosensitization; excessive sun exposure should be avoided after use."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "jing_jie",
    "slug": "jing-jie",
    "name_zh": "荆芥",
    "name_pinyin": "Jīng Jiè",
    "name_en": "Schizonepeta",
    "name_latin": "Schizonepetae Herba",
    "category": "辛温解表药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "解表散风",
        "en": "Release the exterior and dispel wind"
      },
      {
        "zh": "透疹",
        "en": "Vent rashes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消疮",
        "en": "Reduce sores"
      },
      {
        "zh": "炒炭止血",
        "en": "When charred, stop bleeding"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "外感表证，无论风寒风热皆可配用",
        "en": "Exterior patterns from wind-cold or wind-heat invasion"
      },
      {
        "zh": "麻疹不透，风疹瘙痒",
        "en": "Incompletely expressed measles and itchy wind-rash"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疮疡初起兼有表证",
        "en": "Early-stage sores with concurrent exterior signs"
      },
      {
        "zh": "咽喉肿痛",
        "en": "Sore, swollen throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "（荆芥炭）便血、崩漏、衄血",
        "en": "(Charred form) intestinal bleeding, uterine bleeding, and nosebleed"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "表虚自汗、阴虚头痛者忌用。凡病人表虚有汗及血虚寒热而不因于风寒、风热、风湿者，并禁用之。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 4,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤4.5–9g，不宜久煎；发表透疹消疮宜生用，止血须炒炭用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生荆芥",
        "pinyin": "Shēng Jīng Jiè",
        "method": "除去杂质，抢水洗净，切段，干燥",
        "effect": "解表散风，透疹消疮"
      },
      {
        "name": "荆芥炭",
        "pinyin": "Jīng Jiè Tàn",
        "method": "取净荆芥段，武火炒至表面焦黑色、内部焦褐色，存性，喷淋清水灭尽火星",
        "effect": "止血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "气味辛散，不宜久煎，后下为佳；炒炭存性，以防灰化失效。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味辛，温。主寒热鼠瘘，瘰疬生疮，破结聚气，下瘀血，除湿痹。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "唇形科植物荆芥的干燥地上部分。归肺、肝经。性温而不燥，药力平和，风寒风热表证皆宜，兼能透疹、消疮；炒炭后性涩，功能止血，为治多种出血证之常用药。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "menthone",
          "name_zh": "薄荷酮",
          "category": "monoterpene ketone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "pulegone",
          "name_zh": "胡薄荷酮",
          "category": "monoterpene ketone",
          "notes": "hepatotoxic in high isolated doses"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "d-limonene",
          "name_zh": "d-柠檬烯",
          "category": "monoterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "essential oil (volatile)",
          "name_zh": "挥发油",
          "category": "volatile oil mixture"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "荆芥挥发油主含单萜类，具有解热、发汗、抗炎、止痒及轻度抗菌作用。",
        "en": "Schizonepeta essential oil contains monoterpenes that confer antipyretic, diaphoretic, anti-inflammatory, antipruritic, and mild antibacterial effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "风寒风热感冒初起",
          "indication_en": "Early-stage wind-cold or wind-heat common cold",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "风疹瘙痒及荨麻疹辅助",
          "indication_en": "Wind-rash pruritus and urticaria adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "产后血晕（炒炭用）",
          "indication_en": "Postpartum syncope (charred form)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "荆芥辛微温，发表散风，为风邪在表常用药；炒炭能止血。",
          "note_en": "Acrid and slightly warm — releases the exterior and dispels wind; charred form stops bleeding."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "挥发油扩张皮肤毛细血管促发汗，并具抗炎止痒作用。",
          "note_en": "Essential oil dilates cutaneous capillaries to promote sweating and exerts anti-inflammatory and antipruritic effects."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以挥发油含量（不少于 0.60% mL/g）为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies essential oil content (≥0.60% mL/g) as the quality marker."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "qiang_huo",
    "slug": "qiang-huo",
    "name_zh": "羌活",
    "name_pinyin": "Qiāng Huó",
    "name_en": "Notopterygium Root",
    "name_latin": "Notopterygii Rhizoma et Radix",
    "category": "辛温解表药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "解表散寒",
        "en": "Release the exterior and dissipate cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛风胜湿",
        "en": "Dispel wind and overcome dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止痛",
        "en": "Alleviate pain"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风寒夹湿表证，恶寒发热，头痛身痛",
        "en": "Wind-cold-damp exterior patterns with chills, fever, headache, and generalized body aches"
      },
      {
        "zh": "太阳经头痛，项背强痛",
        "en": "Taiyang-channel headache with stiffness of the neck and upper back"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风寒湿痹，肩背肢节疼痛，尤善上半身风湿",
        "en": "Wind-cold-damp painful obstruction of the shoulder, upper back, and joints, especially of the upper body"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风水浮肿",
        "en": "Wind-edema with superficial swelling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "破伤风抽搐（配伍用）",
        "en": "Tetanic spasms (used in combination)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴血亏虚之头痛、身痛及血虚痹痛者忌用；辛温香燥，用量过多易耗气伤阴，脾胃虚弱者亦须慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤3–10g。用量过大易致呕吐，脾胃虚弱者不宜服。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生羌活",
        "pinyin": "Shēng Qiāng Huó",
        "method": "除去杂质，洗净，润透切片，干燥",
        "effect": "解表散寒，祛风胜湿止痛"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "气味雄烈，用量过大易致呕吐。血虚痹痛、阴虚头痛者忌用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "passage": "羌活气雄而散，味薄上升，入足太阳膀胱经，以其为拨乱反正之主，故大寒大热之病非此不除也。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "伞形科植物羌活或宽叶羌活的干燥根茎及根。归膀胱、肾经。辛散苦燥，气味雄烈，善入足太阳膀胱经，能散风寒湿邪而通利关节止痛，为治风寒湿痹在上半身及太阳经头痛之要药。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "notopterol",
          "name_zh": "羌活醇",
          "category": "furanocoumarin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "isoimperatorin",
          "category": "furanocoumarin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "volatile oil (α-pinene, limonene)",
          "category": "monoterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "羌活富含香豆素（羌活醇、异欧前胡素）与挥发油，现代研究显示解热、镇痛、抗炎及抗心律失常作用，对应传统祛风散寒、胜湿止痛之功。",
        "en": "Notopterygium contains furanocoumarins (notopterol, isoimperatorin) and volatile oils with antipyretic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antiarrhythmic effects in preclinical models, aligning with its traditional wind-cold-damp dispelling and pain-relieving use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "风寒感冒头身疼痛",
          "indication_en": "Wind-cold colds with headache and generalized body pain",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "风湿痹痛，尤其上半身肩背",
          "indication_en": "Wind-damp arthralgia, especially upper body (shoulders, back)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 强调羌活气味雄烈，阴虚血燥者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky cautions that Notopterygium is pungent and drying and should be used carefully in yin-deficient or blood-dry patients."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述羌活醇有抗心律失常及镇痛活性。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize notopterol's antiarrhythmic and analgesic activities."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "xiang_ru",
    "slug": "xiang-ru",
    "name_zh": "香薷",
    "name_pinyin": "Xiāng Rú",
    "name_en": "Mosla",
    "name_latin": "Moslae Herba",
    "category": "辛温解表药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "发汗解表",
        "en": "Induce sweating and release the exterior"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化湿和中",
        "en": "Transform dampness and harmonize the middle"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利水消肿",
        "en": "Promote urination and reduce edema"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "阴暑证：夏月外感风寒，内伤生冷，恶寒发热，头痛无汗",
        "en": "Yin-summerheat pattern: summer wind-cold exterior invasion with internal cold damage, chills, fever, headache, and absence of sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脘腹胀痛，呕吐泄泻",
        "en": "Epigastric and abdominal distention with pain, vomiting, and diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "水肿，小便不利",
        "en": "Edema with difficult urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "暑湿吐泻",
        "en": "Summer-dampness vomiting and diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脚气浮肿",
        "en": "Leg-qi (beriberi-like) swelling"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "香薷为夏月解表之药，辛温发汗力强，素称“夏月麻黄”，表虚有汗者及阳暑证（中暑发热汗出）忌用。热服易致呕吐，宜凉服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤3–10g；发表用量宜小且不宜久煎，利水退肿用量宜大且须浓煎。宜凉服以免致吐。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生香薷",
        "pinyin": "Shēng Xiāng Rú",
        "method": "除去残根及杂质，切段，阴干生用",
        "effect": "发汗解表，化湿和中，利水消肿"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "发汗力强，不宜用于表虚自汗及阳暑。热服易致呕，宜待凉服。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "passage": "香薷乃夏月解表之药，如冬月之用麻黄，气虚者尤不可多服。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "唇形科植物石香薷或江香薷的干燥地上部分。归肺、胃经。辛温芳香，外能发汗解表散寒，内能化湿和中，兼可利水消肿，为夏月感受风寒、内伤暑湿之要药，有“夏月麻黄”之称。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "elsholtzia ketone",
          "name_zh": "香薷酮",
          "category": "monoterpene ketone",
          "notes": "principal volatile oil component"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "thymol",
          "name_zh": "百里香酚",
          "category": "phenolic monoterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "carvacrol",
          "category": "phenolic monoterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "alpha-pinene",
          "category": "monoterpene hydrocarbon"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "香薷挥发油含香薷酮、百里香酚等，具有发汗解热、抗菌抗病毒及利尿作用，为『夏月之麻黄』的药理基础。",
        "en": "Elsholtzia volatile oil contains elsholtzia ketone, thymol and related monoterpenes with diaphoretic, antipyretic, antimicrobial, antiviral and diuretic actions, underpinning its reputation as the summer-season Ma Huang."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "暑湿感冒、恶寒发热无汗",
          "indication_en": "Summer-damp wind-cold with chills, fever and anhidrosis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "水肿小便不利",
          "indication_en": "Edema with dysuria",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出香薷外散表寒、内化湿浊，尤宜暑月阴暑证。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Xiang Ru releases the exterior and transforms dampness, particularly for summer yin-type cold patterns."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "现代研究显示其挥发油对多种革兰阳性菌有抑制作用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite modern studies showing volatile oil inhibits multiple Gram-positive bacteria."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "jin_yin_hua",
    "slug": "jin-yin-hua",
    "name_zh": "金银花",
    "name_pinyin": "Jīn Yín Huā",
    "name_en": "Japanese Honeysuckle Flower",
    "name_latin": "Lonicerae Japonicae Flos",
    "category": "清热解毒药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热解毒",
        "en": "Clear heat and resolve toxicity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疏散风热",
        "en": "Disperse wind-heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "凉血止痢",
        "en": "Cool the blood and stop dysenteric disorder"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "外感风热或温病初起，发热微恶风寒，咽痛口渴",
        "en": "Early-stage wind-heat or warm-disease invasion with fever, slight chills, sore throat, and thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痈肿疔疮，红肿热痛",
        "en": "Hot toxic sores, abscesses, and boils with redness, swelling, and pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热毒血痢，下痢脓血",
        "en": "Heat-toxin dysentery with bloody, pus-streaked stool"
      },
      {
        "zh": "咽喉肿痛",
        "en": "Sore, swollen throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "暑热烦渴",
        "en": "Summer-heat with irritability and thirst"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚寒及气虚疮疡脓清者忌用。性寒，不宜久服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤6–15g，疏散风热宜生用，清热解毒大剂量可用至30–60g；亦可代茶饮。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生金银花",
        "pinyin": "Shēng Jīn Yín Huā",
        "method": "除去杂质，筛去灰屑，生用",
        "effect": "清热解毒，疏散风热"
      },
      {
        "name": "金银花炭",
        "pinyin": "Jīn Yín Huā Tàn",
        "method": "取净金银花，武火炒至表面焦褐色，存性，喷淋清水灭尽火星",
        "effect": "凉血止痢"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性寒，脾胃虚寒、久泻便溏者不宜长期服用。已溃之痈疽，脓稀清者不宜用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，温，无毒。主寒热身肿，久服轻身长年益寿。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "忍冬科植物忍冬的干燥花蕾或带初开的花。归肺、心、胃经。甘寒芳香，既能清透肺经及肌表之风热，又善清解血分热毒，为治一切内外痈肿疮疡之要药，亦为治风热感冒、温病初起之常用药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q858025",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "chlorogenic acid",
          "name_zh": "绿原酸",
          "category": "phenolic acid",
          "notes": "principal pharmacopoeial marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "luteolin",
          "name_zh": "木犀草素",
          "category": "flavone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "luteoloside (luteolin-7-O-glucoside)",
          "name_zh": "木犀草苷",
          "category": "flavone glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "essential oil components",
          "name_zh": "挥发油",
          "category": "volatile oil"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "金银花含绿原酸、木犀草苷及挥发油，具有抗菌、抗病毒、抗炎及解热作用。",
        "en": "Lonicera yields chlorogenic acid, luteoloside, and essential oil with antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "上呼吸道感染与流感样症状",
          "indication_en": "Upper respiratory infection and influenza-like illness",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "咽喉炎与扁桃体炎",
          "indication_en": "Pharyngitis and tonsillitis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "皮肤化脓感染外用",
          "indication_en": "Topical skin pyogenic infection",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "绿原酸与木犀草素对多种革兰阳性、阴性细菌及呼吸道病毒有体外抑制作用。",
          "note_en": "Chlorogenic acid and luteolin show in vitro inhibition of Gram-positive/negative bacteria and respiratory viruses."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "金银花甘寒清热解毒，为温病卫气分证要药。",
          "note_en": "Sweet-cold herb that clears heat and resolves toxin — principal for warm-disease wei and qi-level patterns."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定绿原酸含量不少于 1.5%，木犀草苷不少于 0.050%。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies chlorogenic acid ≥1.5% and luteoloside ≥0.050%."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "lian_qiao",
    "slug": "lian-qiao",
    "name_zh": "连翘",
    "name_pinyin": "Lián Qiào",
    "name_en": "Forsythia Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Forsythiae Fructus",
    "category": "清热解毒药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热解毒",
        "en": "Clear heat and resolve toxicity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消肿散结",
        "en": "Reduce swelling and dissipate nodules"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疏散风热",
        "en": "Disperse wind-heat"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "外感风热，温病初起，发热头痛",
        "en": "Externally contracted wind-heat and early-stage warm disease with fever and headache"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温病邪入心包，高热神昏",
        "en": "Warm-disease heat entering the Pericardium with high fever and clouded consciousness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痈肿疮毒，丹毒红肿",
        "en": "Hot toxic abscesses, sores, and erysipelas with redness and swelling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘰疬痰核",
        "en": "Scrofulous lumps and phlegm nodules"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热淋涩痛",
        "en": "Heat-type painful urinary dribbling"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚寒及气虚脓清之痈疽、久泻便溏者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤6–15g。青翘清热解毒力强，老翘透表散热力胜。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "青翘",
        "pinyin": "Qīng Qiào",
        "method": "秋季果实初熟尚带绿色时采收，除去杂质，蒸熟晒干",
        "effect": "清热解毒力强，偏清气分及血分热毒"
      },
      {
        "name": "老翘",
        "pinyin": "Lǎo Qiào",
        "method": "果实熟透时采收，晒干，除去种子及杂质",
        "effect": "长于疏散风热，透表散邪"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性寒，脾胃虚寒及气虚久泻者不宜服；用于已溃痈疽脓清者亦须慎用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "味苦，平。主寒热，鼠瘘，瘰疬，痈肿，恶疮，瘿瘤，结热，蛊毒。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "木犀科植物连翘的干燥果实。归肺、心、小肠经。苦寒清泄，轻清上浮，既能清心火、解疮毒，又能疏散风热透邪外出，素有“疮家圣药”之称，为温病卫气营血各阶段及一切痈肿疮毒之要药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1434450",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "forsythiaside A",
          "name_zh": "连翘酯苷 A",
          "category": "phenylethanoid glycoside",
          "notes": "principal marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "phillyrin (forsythin)",
          "name_zh": "连翘苷",
          "category": "lignan glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "rutin",
          "name_zh": "芦丁",
          "category": "flavonoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "essential oil (β-pinene and others)",
          "name_zh": "挥发油（β-蒎烯等）",
          "category": "volatile oil"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "连翘含连翘酯苷、连翘苷及挥发油，具广谱抗菌、抗病毒、抗炎及解热作用。",
        "en": "Forsythia contains forsythiaside, phillyrin, and essential oil with broad antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "上呼吸道感染与流感样症状",
          "indication_en": "Upper respiratory infection and influenza-like illness",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "急性扁桃体炎与咽炎",
          "indication_en": "Acute tonsillitis and pharyngitis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "皮肤化脓感染",
          "indication_en": "Skin pyogenic infection",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "连翘酯苷 A 对多种呼吸道病毒和细菌有体外抑制作用。",
          "note_en": "Forsythiaside A inhibits multiple respiratory viruses and bacteria in vitro."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "连翘与金银花相须为用，为温病卫气分证首选药对。",
          "note_en": "Paired with Lonicera as the archetypal duo for wei and qi-level warm diseases."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以连翘苷（不少于 0.15%）和连翘酯苷 A（不少于 0.25%）为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies phillyrin (≥0.15%) and forsythiaside A (≥0.25%) as quality markers."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "ju_hua",
    "slug": "ju-hua",
    "name_zh": "菊花",
    "name_pinyin": "Jú Huā",
    "name_en": "Chrysanthemum Flower",
    "name_latin": "Chrysanthemi Flos",
    "category": "辛凉解表药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "sweet",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "疏散风热",
        "en": "Disperse wind-heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "平抑肝阳",
        "en": "Calm ascendant Liver yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清肝明目",
        "en": "Clear the Liver and brighten the eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热解毒",
        "en": "Clear heat and resolve toxicity"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风热感冒，发热头痛",
        "en": "Wind-heat common cold with fever and headache"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝阳上亢，眩晕头痛",
        "en": "Ascendant Liver yang with dizziness and headache"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝经风热或肝火上攻，目赤肿痛",
        "en": "Wind-heat or Liver fire rising with red, swollen, painful eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝肾精血不足，目暗昏花",
        "en": "Liver and Kidney essence-blood deficiency with blurred vision"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疔疮肿毒",
        "en": "Sores, carbuncles, and toxic swellings"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "气虚胃寒、食少泄泻者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "疏散风热多用黄菊花（杭菊）；平肝明目多用白菊花（滁菊、亳菊）；清热解毒多用野菊花。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生菊花",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "疏散风热，清热解毒"
      },
      {
        "name": "菊花炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "偏于止血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "脾胃虚寒者不宜长期大量服用，以防伤中阳。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦，平。主诸风头眩肿痛，目欲脱，泪出，皮肤死肌，恶风湿痹。久服利血气，轻身耐老延年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物菊的干燥头状花序。归肺、肝经。辛凉解表，既能疏散上焦风热，又可平肝清肝明目，为外感风热头痛目赤及肝阳眩晕之要药。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "luteolin",
          "name_zh": "木犀草素",
          "category": "flavone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "apigenin",
          "name_zh": "芹菜素",
          "category": "flavone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "chlorogenic acid",
          "name_zh": "绿原酸",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "essential oil (chrysanthenone, camphor)",
          "name_zh": "挥发油（菊酮、樟脑）",
          "category": "volatile oil"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "菊花含黄酮、绿原酸及挥发油，具抗炎、抗氧化、抗菌、扩张冠脉及降压作用。",
        "en": "Chrysanthemum contains flavonoids, chlorogenic acid, and essential oil with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, coronary-dilating, and antihypertensive activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "风热感冒及头痛目赤",
          "indication_en": "Wind-heat common cold with headache and red eyes",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "轻度高血压辅助",
          "indication_en": "Mild hypertension adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "视疲劳与结膜炎辅助",
          "indication_en": "Eye strain and conjunctivitis adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "黄酮成分抑制炎症因子释放，挥发油对多种细菌有抑制作用。",
          "note_en": "Flavonoids inhibit inflammatory cytokine release; the essential oil inhibits multiple bacterial species."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "菊花疏风清热、平肝明目，为眼疾常用。",
          "note_en": "Disperses wind-heat, pacifies liver, and brightens the eyes — a classic ophthalmic herb."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以绿原酸、木犀草苷和 3,5-O-二咖啡酰奎宁酸为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies chlorogenic acid, luteoloside, and 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid as quality markers."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "sang_ye",
    "slug": "sang-ye",
    "name_zh": "桑叶",
    "name_pinyin": "Sāng Yè",
    "name_en": "Mulberry Leaf",
    "name_latin": "Mori Folium",
    "category": "辛凉解表药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "疏散风热",
        "en": "Disperse wind-heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清肺润燥",
        "en": "Clear the Lung and moisten dryness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "平抑肝阳",
        "en": "Calm ascendant Liver yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清肝明目",
        "en": "Clear the Liver and brighten the eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "凉血止血",
        "en": "Cool the blood and stop bleeding"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风热感冒，温病初起，发热头痛",
        "en": "Wind-heat cold or early-stage warm disease with fever and headache"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺热或燥热咳嗽，咽干少痰",
        "en": "Lung heat or dry-heat cough with dry throat and scanty phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝阳眩晕，头痛目赤",
        "en": "Liver yang ascending with dizziness, headache, and red eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝经风热或肝火上炎，目赤昏花",
        "en": "Liver channel wind-heat or Liver fire with red, sore, or blurred eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血热妄行之吐血、衄血",
        "en": "Reckless bleeding from blood-heat such as hematemesis and epistaxis"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "肺胃虚寒者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "外感风热宜生用；肺燥咳嗽多用蜜炙桑叶。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生桑叶",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "疏散风热，清肝明目"
      },
      {
        "name": "蜜桑叶",
        "method": "蜜炙",
        "effect": "润肺止咳作用增强"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "一般用量安全，大剂量或久服对脾胃虚寒者可致腹泻。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "桑根白皮，味甘寒。主伤中五劳六极，羸瘦，崩中脉绝，补虚益气。叶主除寒热，出汗。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "桑科植物桑的干燥叶。归肺、肝经。既能疏散外感风热，又善清肺润燥、平肝明目，为温病初起及秋燥咳嗽之常用药，桑菊饮之君药。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "1-deoxynojirimycin (DNJ)",
          "name_zh": "1-脱氧野尻霉素",
          "category": "iminosugar (α-glucosidase inhibitor)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "rutin",
          "category": "flavonoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "chlorogenic acid",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "桑叶含 1-脱氧野尻霉素（α-葡萄糖苷酶抑制剂）、芦丁及绿原酸，现代研究显示其降血糖、降血脂与抗氧化作用，对应传统疏散风热、清肺润燥之功并延伸至代谢调节。",
        "en": "Mulberry leaf contains 1-deoxynojirimycin (an α-glucosidase inhibitor), rutin, and chlorogenic acid, with preclinical and small clinical data on blood-glucose and lipid lowering and antioxidant effects, aligning with its traditional wind-heat dispersing and lung-moistening use and extending to metabolic applications."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "风热感冒、肺燥干咳",
          "indication_en": "Wind-heat colds and lung-dryness cough",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "目赤涩痛",
          "indication_en": "Red, irritated eyes",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "2 型糖尿病餐后血糖控制辅助",
          "indication_en": "Type 2 diabetes postprandial glucose adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述桑叶 DNJ 抑制 α-葡萄糖苷酶，减少餐后血糖峰值。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize that mulberry leaf DNJ inhibits α-glucosidase and blunts postprandial glucose peaks."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载霜桑叶尤其擅长清肺润燥，为秋燥咳嗽之常用药。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes frost-exposed mulberry leaf is especially suited to lung dryness and is commonly used for autumn-dryness cough."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "bo_he",
    "slug": "bo-he",
    "name_zh": "薄荷",
    "name_pinyin": "Bò He",
    "name_en": "Field Mint",
    "name_latin": "Menthae Haplocalycis Herba",
    "category": "辛凉解表药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "疏散风热",
        "en": "Disperse wind-heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清利头目",
        "en": "Clear and benefit the head and eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利咽透疹",
        "en": "Benefit the throat and vent rashes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疏肝行气",
        "en": "Course the Liver and move qi"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风热感冒，温病初起，发热无汗",
        "en": "Wind-heat common cold or early warm disease with fever and absence of sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风热上攻，头痛目赤",
        "en": "Wind-heat attacking upward with headache and red eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风热壅盛，咽喉肿痛",
        "en": "Exuberant wind-heat with sore, swollen throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "麻疹初起，疹出不畅",
        "en": "Early-stage measles with rash failing to vent"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝郁气滞，胸闷胁胀",
        "en": "Liver qi constraint with chest oppression and hypochondriac distension"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚血燥、肝阳偏亢、表虚自汗者忌用。哺乳期妇女不宜多服（减少乳汁）。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 6,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "入汤剂宜后下，以防挥发油散失。发汗解表用叶，疏肝行气用梗。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "薄荷叶",
        "method": "生用（后下）",
        "effect": "疏散风热，清利头目"
      },
      {
        "name": "薄荷梗",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "偏于理气疏肝"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "挥发油为主要有效成分，煎煮时间过长则效减；婴幼儿鼻腔及面部慎用薄荷脑。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "passage": "薄荷，辛凉，能消风散热，清头目，利咽喉，治中风失音，小儿惊热，语涩舌胎。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "唇形科植物薄荷的干燥地上部分。归肺、肝经。辛凉轻清，善走头面，为疏散风热、清利头目、利咽透疹之要药，亦为银翘散方中重要佐使。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "menthol",
          "name_zh": "薄荷醇",
          "category": "monoterpene alcohol",
          "notes": "principal component of essential oil, ca. 30–50%"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "menthone",
          "name_zh": "薄荷酮",
          "category": "monoterpene ketone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "essential oil",
          "name_zh": "薄荷油",
          "category": "volatile oil"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "薄荷的主要活性成分为薄荷醇及薄荷酮，具有解热、抗菌、局部清凉止痒、促胃肠动力及胆汁分泌作用。",
        "en": "Menthae haplocalycis Herba contains menthol and menthone as principal volatile constituents, with antipyretic, antimicrobial, topical cooling/antipruritic, prokinetic, and choleretic activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肠易激综合征（薄荷油肠溶胶囊）",
          "indication_en": "Irritable bowel syndrome (enteric-coated peppermint oil)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "外感风热头痛、咽痛",
          "indication_en": "Wind-heat pattern headache and sore throat",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "皮肤瘙痒（外用）",
          "indication_en": "Pruritus (topical)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 专论收录薄荷（Mentha × piperita）用于肠易激综合征和消化不良的临床证据。",
          "note_en": "WHO monographs document clinical evidence for Mentha × piperita in irritable bowel syndrome and functional dyspepsia."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出薄荷为辛凉解表药，入煎剂应后下以免挥发油损失。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that Bo He is a cool acrid exterior-releasing herb and should be added at the end of decoction to preserve its volatile oils."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 提醒婴幼儿面部外用含高浓度薄荷醇制剂可能诱发喉痉挛。",
          "note_en": "Brinker cautions that high-menthol topical products applied to the face of infants can trigger laryngospasm."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "niu_bang_zi",
    "slug": "niu-bang-zi",
    "name_zh": "牛蒡子",
    "name_pinyin": "Niú Bàng Zǐ",
    "name_en": "Burdock Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Arctii Fructus",
    "category": "辛凉解表药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "疏散风热",
        "en": "Disperse wind-heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宣肺祛痰",
        "en": "Diffuse the Lung and dispel phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利咽透疹",
        "en": "Benefit the throat and vent rashes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解毒消肿",
        "en": "Resolve toxicity and reduce swelling"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风热感冒，咳嗽痰多",
        "en": "Wind-heat common cold with cough and profuse phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风热或热毒壅盛，咽喉肿痛",
        "en": "Wind-heat or toxic-heat with sore, swollen throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "麻疹不透",
        "en": "Measles rash failing to vent"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风疹瘙痒",
        "en": "Wind rash with itching"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痈肿疮毒，痄腮丹毒",
        "en": "Carbuncles, toxic sores, mumps, and erysipelas"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "气虚便溏者忌用；痘疹家气虚色白、大便自利者忌服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "炒用可缓其寒滑之性，减少滑肠之弊；入汤剂宜捣碎。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生牛蒡子",
        "method": "生用（捣碎）",
        "effect": "疏散风热，解毒利咽作用较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒牛蒡子",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "缓和寒滑之性，长于透疹、利咽，减少滑肠"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性寒滑，大剂量或体质虚寒者服后易致腹泻。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "passage": "牛蒡子，味辛平。主明目补中，除风伤。根茎疗伤寒寒热，汗出中风面肿，消渴热中。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物牛蒡的干燥成熟果实。归肺、胃经。辛散苦泄，性寒滑利，外能疏散风热，内可宣肺祛痰、解毒利咽，为治风热咽痛、麻疹不透之要药。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "arctiin",
          "name_zh": "牛蒡苷",
          "category": "lignan glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "arctigenin",
          "name_zh": "牛蒡苷元",
          "category": "lignan aglycone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "fixed oil with linoleic acid",
          "category": "seed lipid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "牛蒡子主含木脂素类（牛蒡苷及其苷元），具有抗炎、抗病毒、抗肿瘤及降血糖的现代药理报道，与其疏散风热、解毒透疹的传统应用相符。",
        "en": "Arctium seed contains lignans (arctiin and arctigenin) with reported anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antitumor, and hypoglycemic activities in preclinical studies, aligning with its traditional role in dispersing wind-heat and venting rashes."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "风热咽喉肿痛、感冒初起",
          "indication_en": "Wind-heat sore throat and early-stage common cold",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "麻疹、风疹不透",
          "indication_en": "Incomplete eruption of measles/rubella rashes",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "痈肿疮毒辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for sores and carbuncles",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载牛蒡子具缓泻之性，虚寒便溏者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Arctium seed has a mild laxative tendency and should be used cautiously in patients with cold deficiency and loose stools."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述牛蒡苷元在体外对多种病毒及肿瘤细胞株具抑制活性。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize in-vitro inhibitory activity of arctigenin against several viruses and tumor cell lines."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "chan_tui",
    "slug": "chan-tui",
    "name_zh": "蝉蜕",
    "name_pinyin": "Chán Tuì",
    "name_en": "Cicada Moulting",
    "name_latin": "Cicadae Periostracum",
    "category": "辛凉解表药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "疏散风热",
        "en": "Disperse wind-heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利咽开音",
        "en": "Benefit the throat and restore the voice"
      },
      {
        "zh": "透疹止痒",
        "en": "Vent rashes and stop itching"
      },
      {
        "zh": "明目退翳",
        "en": "Brighten the eyes and remove screens (nebulae)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "息风止痉",
        "en": "Extinguish wind and stop spasms"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风热感冒，咽痛音哑",
        "en": "Wind-heat common cold with sore throat and hoarseness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "麻疹不透，风疹瘙痒",
        "en": "Measles failing to vent, and wind rash with itching"
      },
      {
        "zh": "目赤翳障",
        "en": "Red eyes with screens obscuring vision"
      },
      {
        "zh": "急慢惊风，破伤风",
        "en": "Acute and chronic childhood convulsions, and tetanus (lockjaw)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "小儿夜啼不安",
        "en": "Restless nocturnal crying in infants"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 6,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "一般用量3–6g；治破伤风等证可用至15–30g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生蝉蜕",
        "method": "洗净去泥沙，生用",
        "effect": "疏散风热，透疹，息风止痉"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "传统认为孕妇慎用；大剂量用于止痉时应在医师指导下使用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "passage": "蝉壳，味咸甘寒，无毒。主小儿惊痫夜啼，癫病寒热。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蝉科昆虫黑蚱若虫羽化时脱落的皮壳。归肺、肝经。质轻性浮，既能疏散肺经风热而利咽开音、透疹止痒，又善入肝经以明目退翳、息风止痉，为儿科要药。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "chitin",
          "name_zh": "甲壳素",
          "category": "polysaccharide",
          "notes": "main structural component of the exuvia"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "trace amino acids and proteins",
          "name_zh": "蛋白质与氨基酸",
          "category": "protein"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "蝉蜕主要成分为甲壳素及少量蛋白质与氨基酸，动物实验显示其煎剂具有镇静、解热、抗惊厥及抗过敏作用。",
        "en": "Cicadae Periostracum consists mainly of chitin with minor proteins and amino acids; decoctions show sedative, antipyretic, anticonvulsant, and antiallergic activity in animal studies."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "小儿惊风、夜啼",
          "indication_en": "Pediatric convulsions and night crying",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "风疹、荨麻疹瘙痒",
          "indication_en": "Wind-rash and urticarial pruritus",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "风热目赤翳障",
          "indication_en": "Wind-heat red eyes with corneal opacity",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出蝉蜕常与荆芥、防风配伍用于风疹瘙痒，与僵蚕配伍用于小儿惊风。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that Chan Tui is commonly paired with jing jie and fang feng for wind-rashes, and with jiang can for pediatric convulsions."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学记载蝉蜕提取物在小鼠实验中表现出剂量依赖性的抗惊厥和镇静作用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen report that cicada slough extracts show dose-dependent anticonvulsant and sedative effects in mouse models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "ge_gen",
    "slug": "ge-gen",
    "name_zh": "葛根",
    "name_pinyin": "Gé Gēn",
    "name_en": "Kudzu Root",
    "name_latin": "Puerariae Lobatae Radix",
    "category": "辛凉解表药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "解肌退热",
        "en": "Release the flesh and reduce fever"
      },
      {
        "zh": "生津止渴",
        "en": "Generate fluids and alleviate thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "透疹",
        "en": "Vent rashes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "升阳止泻",
        "en": "Raise yang and stop diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通经活络",
        "en": "Unblock channels and quicken the network vessels"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "外感表证，项背强痛",
        "en": "Exterior pattern with stiff, painful neck and upper back"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热病烦渴，消渴",
        "en": "Febrile disease with irritability and thirst, and wasting-thirst disorder"
      },
      {
        "zh": "麻疹初起，透发不畅",
        "en": "Early measles with rash failing to vent completely"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾虚泄泻，湿热泻痢",
        "en": "Spleen deficiency diarrhea, and damp-heat dysenteric disorder"
      },
      {
        "zh": "中风偏瘫，眩晕头痛，胸痹心痛",
        "en": "Wind-stroke hemiplegia, dizziness and headache, and chest bi with heart pain"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "胃寒呕吐、表虚多汗者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "解肌退热、透疹、生津、通经活络宜用生葛根；升阳止泻（脾虚泄泻）宜用煨葛根。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生葛根",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "解肌退热，生津止渴，透疹，通经活络"
      },
      {
        "name": "煨葛根",
        "method": "煨制（麸煨或面裹煨）",
        "effect": "缓其升散之性，增强升阳止泻之功，用于脾虚泄泻"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "表虚自汗、胃寒者不宜大量使用；葛根异黄酮有类雌激素样作用，特殊人群应在指导下使用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shang_han_lun",
        "passage": "太阳病，项背强几几，无汗恶风，葛根汤主之。"
      },
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主消渴，身大热，呕吐，诸痹，起阴气，解诸毒。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "豆科植物野葛的干燥根。归脾、胃、肺经。性凉味甘辛，升散之力较缓，既能解肌发表退热，又可生津止渴、升发清阳、透疹止泻，为治项背强痛及脾虚泄泻之良药，葛根汤、葛根芩连汤之君药。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "puerarin",
          "name_zh": "葛根素",
          "category": "isoflavone C-glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "daidzein",
          "name_zh": "大豆苷元",
          "category": "isoflavone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "daidzin",
          "name_zh": "大豆苷",
          "category": "isoflavone glycoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "葛根主含异黄酮类（葛根素、大豆苷元、大豆苷），药理证实其扩张冠脉与脑血管、改善微循环、降糖、降压及解肌退热作用。",
        "en": "Gegen contains isoflavones (puerarin, daidzein, daidzin); pharmacology confirms coronary and cerebral vasodilation, microcirculation improvement, antidiabetic, antihypertensive and antipyretic actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "冠心病心绞痛",
          "indication_en": "Coronary artery disease / angina",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "缺血性脑卒中与颈椎病",
          "indication_en": "Ischemic stroke and cervical spondylosis",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "外感发热、项背强痛",
          "indication_en": "Exterior fever with neck and upper-back stiffness",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以葛根素为含量测定指标；葛根素注射液曾广泛应用（后因溶血报告调整适应证）。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses puerarin as the assay marker; puerarin injection widely used historically (indications later adjusted due to hemolytic reaction reports)."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "葛根汤、桂枝加葛根汤治疗项背拘急经典应用。",
          "note_en": "Gegen Tang and Guizhi Jia Gegen Tang are classical for neck/upper-back stiffness."
        },
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 专论总结其心脑血管适应证的临床证据。",
          "note_en": "WHO monograph summarizes clinical evidence for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular indications."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "zhi_zi",
    "slug": "zhi-zi",
    "name_zh": "栀子",
    "name_pinyin": "Zhī Zǐ",
    "name_en": "Gardenia Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Gardeniae Fructus",
    "category": "清热泻火药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "泻火除烦",
        "en": "Drain fire and eliminate irritability"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热利湿",
        "en": "Clear heat and drain dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "凉血解毒",
        "en": "Cool the blood and resolve toxicity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消肿止痛",
        "en": "Reduce swelling and alleviate pain"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "热病心烦，郁闷躁扰",
        "en": "Febrile disease with heart vexation, oppression, and restlessness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热黄疸",
        "en": "Damp-heat jaundice"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血热吐衄、尿血",
        "en": "Blood-heat hematemesis, epistaxis, and hematuria"
      },
      {
        "zh": "目赤肿痛，火毒疮疡",
        "en": "Red painful eyes and fire-toxin sores"
      },
      {
        "zh": "扭挫伤痛（外用）",
        "en": "Sprains and contusions (topical application)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾虚便溏、食少者忌服。栀子苦寒，脾胃虚寒无湿热实火者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤6–10g；外用生品研末调敷治跌打损伤。清热泻火多用生栀子，凉血止血常用焦栀子。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生栀子",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "泻火除烦、清热利湿、凉血解毒力强，多用于热病心烦、湿热黄疸"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒栀子",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "苦寒之性略减，除烦而不伤中，用于心烦而脾胃不甚虚者"
      },
      {
        "name": "焦栀子",
        "method": "炒焦",
        "effect": "长于凉血止血，用于血热吐衄、尿血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "苦寒伤胃，不宜过量或久服。脾虚便溏者忌用。现代研究提示大剂量或长期使用可能影响肝功能，临床应辨证使用、中病即止。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，寒。主五内邪气，胃中热气，面赤酒疱皶鼻，白癞赤癞疮疡。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "茜草科植物栀子的干燥成熟果实。归心、肺、三焦经。为清泻三焦火邪、除烦解郁之要药，善治热病心烦郁闷之证，生用走气分而泻火，焦用入血分而止血。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q839627",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "geniposide",
          "name_zh": "栀子苷",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside",
          "notes": "hepatoprotective and choleretic marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "crocin",
          "name_zh": "藏红花素",
          "category": "carotenoid glycoside",
          "notes": "yellow pigment, antidepressant and antioxidant"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "crocetin",
          "category": "carotenoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "genipin",
          "category": "iridoid aglycone"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "栀子主含栀子苷、藏红花素（crocin）等环烯醚萜及类胡萝卜素成分，具有保肝利胆、解热、抗炎、镇静及降压作用，为清热泻火除烦的药理依据。",
        "en": "Gardenia fruit contains iridoid glycosides (geniposide) and carotenoids (crocin, crocetin) with hepatoprotective, choleretic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, sedative and hypotensive effects, providing the basis for its heat-clearing, fire-draining and restlessness-resolving actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝胆湿热之黄疸",
          "indication_en": "Jaundice from liver-gallbladder damp-heat",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "热病心烦不眠",
          "indication_en": "Vexation and insomnia in febrile disease",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "跌打损伤外敷消肿",
          "indication_en": "Topical application for traumatic swelling",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以栀子苷为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses geniposide as the assay marker."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述栀子苷在动物模型中显著降低 ALT 并改善胆汁淤积。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite geniposide markedly lowering ALT and improving cholestasis in animal models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "lu_gen",
    "slug": "lu-gen",
    "name_zh": "芦根",
    "name_pinyin": "Lú Gēn",
    "name_en": "Reed Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Phragmitis Rhizoma",
    "category": "清热泻火药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热泻火",
        "en": "Clear heat and drain fire"
      },
      {
        "zh": "生津止渴",
        "en": "Generate fluids and alleviate thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "除烦止呕",
        "en": "Eliminate irritability and stop vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利尿",
        "en": "Promote urination"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "热病烦渴",
        "en": "Febrile disease with irritability and thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胃热呕哕",
        "en": "Stomach heat with nausea and hiccup"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺热咳嗽，肺痈吐脓",
        "en": "Lung-heat cough and lung abscess with purulent expectoration"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热淋涩痛",
        "en": "Heat strangury with painful urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "麻疹初起，透发不畅",
        "en": "Early-stage measles with incomplete eruption"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚寒者忌服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 15,
      "max": 30,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "干品15–30g；鲜品用量加倍（60–120g），生津止渴、清透热邪之力尤佳。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "鲜芦根",
        "method": "鲜用",
        "effect": "清热生津、除烦止渴力强，凡温热病津伤口渴、胃热呕吐多用鲜品"
      },
      {
        "name": "干芦根",
        "method": "晒干",
        "effect": "作用与鲜品相似而药力稍缓，便于储存，煎汤内服常用"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "质轻味淡，药性平和，虽性寒而不甚伤胃。大剂量鲜品榨汁服用时，脾虚便溏者慎之。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "wen_bing_tiao_bian",
        "classification": "温病生津之品",
        "passage": "太阴温病，但热不恶寒而渴者，辛凉平剂银翘散主之。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "禾本科植物芦苇的干燥或新鲜根茎。归肺、胃经。甘寒质轻，清热而不伤胃，生津而不恋邪，为温病津伤、胃热呕吐之良药。吴鞠通银翘散以鲜芦根煎汤代水，即取其清透热邪、生津止渴之功。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q158888",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "coixol (6-methoxybenzoxazolinone)",
          "name_zh": "薏苡素",
          "category": "benzoxazinoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "asparagine",
          "name_zh": "天冬酰胺",
          "category": "amino acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "flavonoids",
          "name_zh": "黄酮类",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "芦根含多糖、薏苡素及氨基酸，具清热生津、止呕、解热及利尿作用。",
        "en": "Phragmites rhizome contains polysaccharides, coixol, and amino acids with heat-clearing, fluid-generating, antiemetic, antipyretic, and diuretic effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "热病烦渴",
          "indication_en": "Febrile-disease thirst and irritability",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "胃热呕吐",
          "indication_en": "Stomach-heat vomiting",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肺热咳嗽与肺痈辅助",
          "indication_en": "Lung-heat cough and lung abscess adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "芦根甘寒入肺胃，清热生津止呕，温病常用。",
          "note_en": "Sweet and cold, entering lung and stomach — clears heat, generates fluids, and stops vomiting in warm diseases."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "水煎液有解热、止吐及促进分泌作用；多糖显示抗氧化活性。",
          "note_en": "Decoction shows antipyretic, antiemetic, and secretagogue effects; polysaccharides show antioxidant activity."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以性状和浸出物为质量控制指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses macroscopic and extractive controls as quality markers."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "xia_ku_cao",
    "slug": "xia-ku-cao",
    "name_zh": "夏枯草",
    "name_pinyin": "Xià Kū Cǎo",
    "name_en": "Prunella Spike",
    "name_latin": "Prunellae Spica",
    "category": "清热泻火药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清肝泻火",
        "en": "Clear the Liver and drain fire"
      },
      {
        "zh": "明目",
        "en": "Brighten the eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散结消肿",
        "en": "Dissipate nodules and reduce swelling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "降压",
        "en": "Lower blood pressure (modern application)"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝火上炎，目赤肿痛，头痛眩晕",
        "en": "Liver fire flaring upward with red painful eyes, headache, and dizziness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "目珠夜痛",
        "en": "Eye pain worse at night"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘰疬、瘿瘤",
        "en": "Scrofula and goiter"
      },
      {
        "zh": "乳痈肿痛",
        "en": "Breast abscess with swelling and pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "高血压肝阳上亢证",
        "en": "Hypertension with ascendant Liver yang"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚寒者慎用。气虚者不宜单用久服，恐伤中气。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤9–15g；治瘰疬、瘿瘤可用至30g；熬膏或入丸散。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生夏枯草",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清肝火、散郁结，为治肝火目疾及瘰疬之要药"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "长期大量服用可损伤胃气，脾虚便溏者不宜。现代临床用于高血压病，宜辨证属肝火或肝阳者；阴虚阳亢者须配伍滋阴之品。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "味苦辛，寒。主寒热，瘰疬，鼠瘘，头疮，破癥，散瘿结气，脚肿湿痹，轻身。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "唇形科植物夏枯草的干燥果穗。归肝、胆经。夏至后花穗枯黄而得名。禀纯阳之气，得阴气而枯，故善清肝火、散郁结，为治肝火目赤、痰火瘰疬之要药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q159570",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "ursolic acid",
          "name_zh": "熊果酸",
          "category": "triterpenoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "oleanolic acid",
          "category": "triterpenoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "rosmarinic acid",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "Prunella polysaccharides",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "夏枯草主含三萜酸（熊果酸、齐墩果酸）及酚酸，具有降压、抗炎、抗病毒及免疫调节作用。",
        "en": "Prunella spike contains triterpene acids (ursolic and oleanolic acids) and phenolic acids with antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and immunomodulatory effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "高血压肝阳上亢之头痛眩晕",
          "indication_en": "Liver-yang rising hypertension with headache and dizziness",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "瘰疬、甲状腺肿、乳腺增生",
          "indication_en": "Scrofula, goiter and mammary nodules",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "清肝泻火、明目、散结消肿，为治瘰疬、肝火目赤的常用药。",
          "note_en": "Clears Liver fire, brightens eyes and dissipates nodules; commonly used for scrofula and Liver-fire red eyes."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "熊果酸显示抗炎、抗肿瘤及轻度降压的实验证据。",
          "note_en": "Ursolic acid shows experimental evidence of anti-inflammatory, antitumor and mild antihypertensive activity."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "huang_bai",
    "slug": "huang-bai",
    "name_zh": "黄柏",
    "name_pinyin": "Huáng Bǎi",
    "name_en": "Phellodendron Bark",
    "name_latin": "Phellodendri Chinensis Cortex",
    "category": "清热燥湿药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热燥湿",
        "en": "Clear heat and dry dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泻火解毒",
        "en": "Drain fire and resolve toxicity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "退虚热",
        "en": "Reduce deficiency heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "坚阴",
        "en": "Firm yin (restrain ministerial fire)"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "湿热泻痢，黄疸",
        "en": "Damp-heat dysentery and jaundice"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热带下，热淋涩痛",
        "en": "Damp-heat leukorrhea and heat strangury"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热脚气，痿躄",
        "en": "Damp-heat beriberi and flaccid paralysis of the legs"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴虚发热，骨蒸盗汗，遗精",
        "en": "Yin-deficiency fever, steaming bone tidal fever, night sweats, and seminal emission"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疮疡肿毒，湿疹瘙痒",
        "en": "Sores, swellings, and damp-skin eruptions with itching"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "苦寒伤胃，脾胃虚寒者慎用或忌用。凡无湿热实火及阴虚无火者禁服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤3–12g；外用适量，研末调敷或煎水浸洗。清湿热用生品，退虚热宜盐水炒。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生黄柏",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清热燥湿、泻火解毒力强，用于湿热下注、疮毒"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐黄柏",
        "method": "盐水炙",
        "effect": "引药下行入肾，善退虚热、坚阴止遗，用于阴虚火旺、骨蒸盗汗"
      },
      {
        "name": "黄柏炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "清湿热而兼止血，用于湿热便血、崩漏"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "苦寒，脾胃虚寒者慎用。久服或大量使用恐伤脾阳、损耗津液。孕妇慎用。现代研究提示其活性成分小檗碱对肝肾功能的长期影响应予注意。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，寒。主五脏肠胃中结热，黄疸，肠痔，止泄痢，女子漏下赤白，阴阳蚀疮。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "芸香科植物黄皮树的干燥树皮。归肾、膀胱经。为清下焦湿热、退虚热坚阴之要药。与知母相须为用以滋阴降火（知柏地黄丸），与苍术配伍以清热燥湿（二妙散）。黄柏入下焦，黄连入中焦，黄芩入上焦，三者分治三焦湿热。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2329023",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "berberine",
          "name_zh": "小檗碱（黄连素）",
          "category": "isoquinoline alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "palmatine",
          "name_zh": "巴马汀",
          "category": "isoquinoline alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "phellodendrine",
          "name_zh": "黄柏碱",
          "category": "quaternary alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "obakunone / limonoids",
          "category": "limonoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "黄柏主含异喹啉类生物碱（小檗碱、巴马汀、黄柏碱）与柠檬苦素，药理示其抗菌、抗炎、降糖、降压、抑制醛糖还原酶与免疫调节作用。",
        "en": "Huangbai contains isoquinoline alkaloids (berberine, palmatine, phellodendrine) and limonoids; pharmacology shows antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antihypertensive, aldose-reductase inhibitory and immunomodulatory effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "湿热下注（泌尿生殖系感染、带下）",
          "indication_en": "Damp-heat pouring down (UTI, leukorrhea)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "湿疹、疮疡、烫伤外用",
          "indication_en": "Topical eczema, sores and burns",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "2 型糖尿病辅助（黄柏/小檗碱制剂）",
          "indication_en": "Type 2 diabetes (adjunct, berberine preparations)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以小檗碱作为含量测定指标；收载川黄柏（Phellodendron chinense）与关黄柏（P. amurense）。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses berberine as the assay marker and lists Phellodendron chinense (chuan huangbai) and P. amurense (guan huangbai)."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "小檗碱可置换胆红素并抑制 UGT1A1，新生儿及孕晚期禁用以防核黄疸；与环孢素、大环内酯类等经 CYP3A4 代谢药物相互作用。",
          "note_en": "Berberine displaces bilirubin and inhibits UGT1A1; contraindicated in neonates and late pregnancy due to kernicterus risk; interacts with CYP3A4 substrates (cyclosporine, macrolides)."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "脾胃虚寒者忌用；盐黄柏入下焦，用于肾阴虚火旺。",
          "note_en": "Avoid in spleen-stomach cold-deficiency; salt-fried form targets lower burner for kidney yin-deficiency fire."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "long_dan_cao",
    "slug": "long-dan-cao",
    "name_zh": "龙胆草",
    "name_pinyin": "Lóng Dǎn Cǎo",
    "name_en": "Chinese Gentian Root",
    "name_latin": "Gentianae Radix et Rhizoma",
    "category": "清热燥湿药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热燥湿",
        "en": "Clear heat and dry dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泻肝胆火",
        "en": "Drain Liver and Gallbladder fire"
      },
      {
        "zh": "定惊息风",
        "en": "Settle fright and extinguish wind"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解毒",
        "en": "Resolve toxicity"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "湿热黄疸",
        "en": "Damp-heat jaundice"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴肿阴痒、带下、湿疹瘙痒",
        "en": "Damp-heat leukorrhea, genital itching, and eczema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝火头痛目赤，耳聋胁痛",
        "en": "Liver-fire headache, red eyes, deafness, and hypochondriac pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "口苦咽干",
        "en": "Bitter taste in mouth and dry throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "惊风抽搐，高热神昏",
        "en": "Acute childhood convulsions with high fever and clouded consciousness"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "大苦大寒，脾胃虚寒者慎用，无湿热实火者忌服。脾虚便溏、阴虚津伤者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 6,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤3–6g；龙胆大苦大寒，用量不宜过大，以免伤胃损阳。外用适量，煎水洗或研末敷患处。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生龙胆",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清热燥湿、泻肝胆实火力强，用于肝胆湿热、实火上炎诸证"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒龙胆",
        "method": "酒炒",
        "effect": "缓其苦寒之性，引药上行，用于头目肝火之证"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "大苦大寒，易伤脾胃，空腹慎服，以免致呕。久服或大量使用可致纳呆、头痛、面赤。脾胃虚寒、阳虚畏寒者禁用。须严格辨证，中病即止。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦涩，寒。主骨间寒热，惊痫邪气，续绝伤，定五脏，杀蛊毒。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "龙胆科植物条叶龙胆、龙胆、三花龙胆或坚龙胆的干燥根及根茎。归肝、胆经。为泻肝胆实火、清下焦湿热之要药。李东垣龙胆泻肝汤以本品为君，治肝胆实火上炎、下焦湿热诸证。苦寒沉降，非实火湿热不可妄用。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1517745",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "gentiopicroside",
          "name_zh": "龙胆苦苷",
          "category": "secoiridoid glycoside",
          "notes": "principal marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "swertiamarin",
          "name_zh": "獐牙菜苦苷",
          "category": "secoiridoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "gentianine",
          "name_zh": "龙胆碱",
          "category": "alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "loganic acid",
          "name_zh": "马钱苷酸",
          "category": "iridoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "龙胆草含裂环环烯醚萜苷及生物碱，具苦味健胃、保肝、利胆、抗炎及降压作用。",
        "en": "Gentiana contains secoiridoid glycosides and alkaloids with bitter stomachic, hepatoprotective, choleretic, anti-inflammatory, and antihypertensive activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝胆湿热与黄疸",
          "indication_en": "Liver-gallbladder damp-heat and jaundice",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "消化不良与食欲不振",
          "indication_en": "Dyspepsia and anorexia (bitter tonic)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "急性结膜炎与湿疹",
          "indication_en": "Acute conjunctivitis and eczema",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "龙胆苦苷刺激苦味受体反射性促进胃液分泌，并显示保肝利胆作用。",
          "note_en": "Gentiopicroside stimulates bitter receptors to reflexively promote gastric secretion and shows hepatoprotective and choleretic action."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "龙胆大苦大寒，清肝胆湿热下焦湿热，为龙胆泻肝汤主药。",
          "note_en": "Intensely bitter and cold — clears liver-gallbladder and lower-burner damp-heat; chief herb of Long Dan Xie Gan Tang."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以龙胆苦苷含量（不少于 3.0%）为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies gentiopicroside (≥3.0%) as the quality marker."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "ban_lan_gen",
    "slug": "ban-lan-gen",
    "name_zh": "板蓝根",
    "name_pinyin": "Bǎn Lán Gēn",
    "name_en": "Isatis Root",
    "name_latin": "Isatidis Radix",
    "category": "清热解毒药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热解毒",
        "en": "Clear heat and resolve toxicity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "凉血",
        "en": "Cool the blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利咽",
        "en": "Benefit the throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消肿",
        "en": "Reduce swelling"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "温病发热，温毒发斑",
        "en": "Warm-disease fever and warm-toxin maculopapular eruption"
      },
      {
        "zh": "咽喉肿痛、口舌生疮",
        "en": "Sore swollen throat and mouth or tongue ulcers"
      },
      {
        "zh": "大头瘟疫（流行性腮腺炎）",
        "en": "Epidemic parotitis (mumps)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "丹毒，痈肿疮毒",
        "en": "Erysipelas, abscesses, and toxic sores"
      },
      {
        "zh": "流感、肝炎等外感温热疫毒证",
        "en": "Influenza and viral hepatitis with warm-toxin pattern"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "体虚无实火热毒者忌服。脾胃虚寒者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤9–15g；大剂量治疗时疫可用至30g。外用适量，煎水含漱或研末调敷。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生板蓝根",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清热解毒、凉血利咽，临床均用生品"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性寒味苦，不宜长期大量服用，可损伤脾胃阳气。现代报告偶见过敏反应及胃肠不适。非热毒证忌用，儿童用量宜减。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "classification": "解毒利咽之品",
        "passage": "治时行疫疠，咽喉肿塞，兼治诸般热毒。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "十字花科植物菘蓝的干燥根。归心、胃经。为治温病热毒、咽喉肿痛之要药。与大青叶同出一源（大青叶为本植物之叶），功用相近而板蓝根偏于解毒利咽，大青叶偏于凉血消斑。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2704791",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "indigo and indirubin",
          "name_zh": "靛蓝、靛玉红",
          "category": "indole alkaloid",
          "notes": "indirubin is the active moiety studied for CML"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "epigoitrin",
          "name_zh": "表告依春",
          "category": "epithiospecifier compound",
          "notes": "pharmacopoeial marker for antiviral activity"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "板蓝根多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "板蓝根含吲哚类（靛蓝、靛玉红）、表告依春及多糖，具有抗病毒、抗菌、抗内毒素及免疫调节作用；靛玉红曾被研究用于慢性粒细胞白血病。",
        "en": "Isatidis Radix contains indole compounds (indigo, indirubin), epigoitrin, and polysaccharides, with antiviral, antibacterial, anti-endotoxin, and immunomodulatory activity; indirubin has been studied as a treatment for chronic myelogenous leukemia."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "上呼吸道病毒感染（流感、腮腺炎）",
          "indication_en": "Upper respiratory viral infections (influenza, mumps)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性粒细胞白血病（靛玉红）",
          "indication_en": "Chronic myelogenous leukemia (indirubin)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出板蓝根是中国广泛使用的抗病毒清热解毒药，常与金银花、连翘配伍。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that Ban Lan Gen is widely used in China as an antiviral heat-clearing herb, commonly paired with jin yin hua and lian qiao."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学记载中国临床研究发现靛玉红对慢性粒细胞白血病有一定缓解作用，并是 GSK-3β 抑制剂研究的先导化合物。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite Chinese clinical research showing indirubin activity in CML, and its role as a lead compound for GSK-3β inhibitor development."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》2020年版以表告依春作为板蓝根的含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "The 2020 Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses epigoitrin as the quantitative marker for Ban Lan Gen."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "pu_gong_ying",
    "slug": "pu-gong-ying",
    "name_zh": "蒲公英",
    "name_pinyin": "Pú Gōng Yīng",
    "name_en": "Dandelion",
    "name_latin": "Taraxaci Herba",
    "category": "清热解毒药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热解毒",
        "en": "Clear heat and resolve toxicity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消肿散结",
        "en": "Reduce swelling and dissipate nodules"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利湿通淋",
        "en": "Drain dampness and relieve strangury"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通乳",
        "en": "Promote lactation and relieve breast abscess"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "乳痈肿痛",
        "en": "Breast abscess with swelling and pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疔疮肿毒",
        "en": "Toxic sores and furuncles"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘰疬，肠痈，肺痈",
        "en": "Scrofula, intestinal abscess, and lung abscess"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热黄疸",
        "en": "Damp-heat jaundice"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热淋涩痛，目赤肿痛",
        "en": "Heat strangury and red painful eyes"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阳虚外寒、脾胃虚寒者忌服。用量过大可致缓泻。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤9–15g，大剂量可至30–60g；鲜品可捣汁或捣敷；外用适量，鲜品捣烂敷患处治乳痈、疔疮。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "鲜蒲公英",
        "method": "鲜用",
        "effect": "清热解毒、消肿散结力强，外敷治乳痈、疔疮尤宜"
      },
      {
        "name": "干蒲公英",
        "method": "晒干",
        "effect": "作用与鲜品同而药力稍缓，便于煎服"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "药性平和，为清热解毒常用药，但苦寒仍可伤胃，脾胃虚寒者慎用。偶见过敏反应。大剂量久服可引起轻度腹泻。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "classification": "痈疡圣药",
        "passage": "蒲公英，治乳痈红肿，捣汁和酒服。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物蒲公英、碱地蒲公英或同属数种植物的干燥全草。归肝、胃经。为治乳痈之要药，内服外敷皆宜。性虽苦寒而不甚伤胃，兼能利湿通淋，故为清热解毒药中较为平和之品。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q131219",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "taraxasterol",
          "name_zh": "蒲公英甾醇",
          "category": "pentacyclic triterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "sesquiterpene lactones (taraxinic acid glucoside)",
          "category": "sesquiterpene lactone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "chicoric acid",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "inulin",
          "category": "fructan polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "蒲公英含三萜、倍半萜内酯、菊苣酸与菊糖等，现代研究显示其具利胆、利尿、抗炎及抑菌作用，呼应传统清热解毒、消痈散结之功。",
        "en": "Dandelion (Taraxacum) contains triterpenes, sesquiterpene lactones, chicoric acid, and inulin, with reported choleretic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities consistent with its traditional heat-clearing, toxin-resolving, and abscess-dispersing use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "乳痈、急性乳腺炎",
          "indication_en": "Acute mastitis (Ru Yong)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "尿路感染、湿热黄疸",
          "indication_en": "Urinary tract infection, damp-heat jaundice",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "消化不良、食欲不振（欧洲传统用药）",
          "indication_en": "Dyspepsia and loss of appetite (European traditional use)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 专著收录 Taraxaci Radix 与 Herba，肯定其作为苦味健胃药与利胆剂的传统应用。",
          "note_en": "WHO monographs cover Taraxaci Radix and Herba, supporting their traditional use as bitter digestives and choleretic agents."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述蒲公英对金黄色葡萄球菌等致乳腺炎病原有抑制作用，并有护肝利胆报告。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize dandelion's inhibitory activity against S. aureus and other mastitis pathogens and its hepatoprotective/choleretic effects."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "she_gan",
    "slug": "she-gan",
    "name_zh": "射干",
    "name_pinyin": "Shè Gān",
    "name_en": "Belamcanda Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Belamcandae Rhizoma",
    "category": "清热解毒药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热解毒",
        "en": "Clear heat and resolve toxicity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消痰利咽",
        "en": "Dissolve phlegm and benefit the throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散结消肿",
        "en": "Dissipate nodules and reduce swelling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "降气",
        "en": "Direct qi downward"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "咽喉肿痛",
        "en": "Sore swollen throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰涎壅盛，咳嗽气喘",
        "en": "Copious phlegm with cough and wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘰疬痰核",
        "en": "Scrofula and phlegm nodules"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痈肿疮毒",
        "en": "Abscesses and toxic sores"
      },
      {
        "zh": "喉痹失音",
        "en": "Throat obstruction with loss of voice"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "病无实热及脾虚便溏者不宜。孕妇忌服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤3–10g；入丸散用量酌减。外用适量，煎水洗或研末吹喉。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生射干",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清热解毒、消痰利咽力强，治咽喉肿痛、痰盛咳喘"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性寒有小毒，用量不宜过大，脾虚便溏者慎服。孕妇禁用。过量可致胃肠刺激、腹痛腹泻。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "jin_gui_yao_lue",
        "classification": "祛痰利咽之品",
        "passage": "咳而上气，喉中水鸡声，射干麻黄汤主之。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "鸢尾科植物射干的干燥根茎。归肺经。为治咽喉肿痛、痰壅气逆之要药。张仲景射干麻黄汤以本品配麻黄、细辛等，治寒饮伏肺、喉中水鸡声之证，为宣肺化痰利咽之代表方。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1377380",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "tectoridin",
          "name_zh": "射干苷",
          "category": "isoflavone glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "tectorigenin",
          "category": "isoflavone aglycone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "irigenin",
          "category": "isoflavone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "iridin",
          "category": "isoflavone glycoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "射干主含异黄酮类化合物（射干苷、鸢尾黄素等），具有抗炎、抗病毒、祛痰及抑菌作用。",
        "en": "Belamcanda rhizome contains isoflavonoids (tectoridin, tectorigenin, irigenin) with anti-inflammatory, antiviral, expectorant and antibacterial activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "咽喉肿痛、急性扁桃体炎",
          "indication_en": "Sore throat and acute tonsillitis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "痰盛咳喘、支气管炎",
          "indication_en": "Phlegm-heat cough and bronchitis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "主治咽喉肿痛、痰涎壅盛，为射干麻黄汤主药。",
          "note_en": "Principal herb in She Gan Ma Huang Tang for throat swelling with copious phlegm."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "射干提取物对金葡菌、肺炎双球菌及多种呼吸道病毒有抑制作用。",
          "note_en": "Extracts inhibit S. aureus, pneumococcus and several respiratory viruses in vitro."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "chi_shao",
    "slug": "chi-shao",
    "name_zh": "赤芍",
    "name_pinyin": "Chì Sháo",
    "name_en": "Red Peony Root",
    "name_latin": "Paeoniae Rubrae Radix",
    "category": "清热凉血药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热凉血",
        "en": "Clear heat and cool the blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散瘀止痛",
        "en": "Dissipate stasis and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "活血消肿",
        "en": "Invigorate blood and reduce swelling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泻肝火",
        "en": "Drain Liver fire"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "温毒发斑，血热吐衄",
        "en": "Warm-toxin maculopapular eruption and blood-heat hematemesis or epistaxis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "目赤肿痛",
        "en": "Red swollen painful eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝郁胁痛，经闭痛经",
        "en": "Liver constraint with hypochondriac pain, amenorrhea, and dysmenorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "癥瘕积聚，跌打损伤",
        "en": "Abdominal masses and traumatic injury"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痈肿疮疡",
        "en": "Abscesses and sores"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "不宜与藜芦同用（十八反）。血虚无瘀之证及痈疽已溃者慎用。月经过多及孕妇慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤6–12g；活血散瘀、治癥瘕可用至15g；入丸散酌减。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生赤芍",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清热凉血、散瘀止痛力强，用于血热、血瘀诸证"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒赤芍",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "减缓寒性，活血而不伤中，用于瘀血腹痛而脾胃不甚虚者"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒赤芍",
        "method": "酒炒",
        "effect": "增强活血散瘀之力，用于经闭痛经、跌打损伤"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性寒凉而散瘀，无瘀血者不宜用。与藜芦相反，不可同用。月经过多、血虚及孕妇慎服。现代研究未见明显毒性。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，平。主邪气腹痛，除血痹，破坚积，寒热疝瘕，止痛，利小便，益气。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "毛茛科植物芍药或川赤芍的干燥根，直接晒干而不去皮。归肝经。与白芍同源而功用迥异：白芍养血柔肝、敛阴止汗，主补；赤芍清热凉血、散瘀止痛，主泻。故有\"白补赤泻、白敛赤散\"之说。血热血瘀诸证用赤，血虚肝郁挛急用白。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q15625478",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "paeoniflorin",
          "name_zh": "芍药苷",
          "category": "monoterpene glycoside",
          "notes": "shared marker with Bai Shao"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "benzoylpaeoniflorin",
          "name_zh": "苯甲酰芍药苷",
          "category": "monoterpene glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "paeonol",
          "name_zh": "丹皮酚",
          "category": "phenolic compound"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "赤芍与白芍同源（Paeonia lactiflora），未经去皮加工，含芍药苷、苯甲酰芍药苷及丹皮酚，具有抗血小板聚集、改善微循环、抗炎及保肝作用。",
        "en": "Paeoniae Radix Rubra shares source species with Bai Shao but is used unpeeled; it contains paeoniflorin, benzoylpaeoniflorin, and paeonol, with antiplatelet, microcirculation-improving, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "血瘀证（冠心病、脑血管病）辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for blood-stasis conditions (coronary and cerebrovascular disease)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "热入营血之发斑",
          "indication_en": "Heat entering the blood with maculopapular rash",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 对比赤芍与白芍：白芍偏养血柔肝，赤芍偏清热凉血、活血散瘀。",
          "note_en": "Bensky contrasts Chi Shao (cooling, blood-moving) with Bai Shao (blood-nourishing, liver-softening), despite their shared botanical origin."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学指出赤芍提取物可抑制血小板聚集、延长凝血时间，临床用于血瘀型心脑血管疾病。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen report that Chi Shao extracts inhibit platelet aggregation and prolong clotting time, supporting clinical use in blood-stasis cardiovascular disease."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "xuan_shen",
    "slug": "xuan-shen",
    "name_zh": "玄参",
    "name_pinyin": "Xuán Shēn",
    "name_en": "Scrophularia Root",
    "name_latin": "Scrophulariae Radix",
    "category": "清热凉血药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bitter",
      "salty"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热凉血",
        "en": "Clear heat and cool the blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "滋阴降火",
        "en": "Nourish yin and descend fire"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解毒散结",
        "en": "Resolve toxicity and dissipate nodules"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润燥",
        "en": "Moisten dryness"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "温病热入营血，身热口干，神昏舌绛",
        "en": "Warm disease with heat entering the nutritive and blood levels, fever, thirst, delirium, and crimson tongue"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热病伤阴，津伤便秘",
        "en": "Febrile disease with yin damage and constipation from fluid depletion"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴虚发热，骨蒸劳热",
        "en": "Yin-deficiency fever and steaming bone taxation heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "咽喉肿痛，白喉",
        "en": "Sore swollen throat and diphtheria"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘰疬痰核，痈肿疮毒",
        "en": "Scrofula, phlegm nodules, and toxic sores"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "不宜与藜芦同用（十八反）。脾胃虚寒、食少便溏者忌服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤9–15g；治热入营血、咽喉肿痛可用至30g；入丸散酌减。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生玄参",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清热凉血、滋阴降火、解毒散结，临床均用生品"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性寒而滋腻，易碍脾助湿，脾胃虚寒、食少便溏者忌服。与藜芦相反，不可同用。不宜长期大量服用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，微寒。主腹中寒热积聚，女子产乳余疾，补肾气，令人目明。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "玄参科植物玄参的干燥根。归肺、胃、肾经。色黑入肾，咸能软坚，善治肾阴不足、虚火上炎之咽喉肿痛、瘰疬痰核。吴鞠通增液汤以玄参配麦冬、生地，治热病伤阴、津枯便秘，开\"增水行舟\"之法。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q15718421",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "harpagoside",
          "name_zh": "哈巴俄苷",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside",
          "notes": "anti-inflammatory marker compound"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "harpagide",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "scrophularia iridoids (ningpogenin)",
          "name_zh": "玄参苷",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "phenylpropanoid glycosides",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "玄参含哈巴俄苷等环烯醚萜类成分，具有抗炎、降压、轻度降糖及镇静作用，为清热凉血、滋阴解毒的药理基础。",
        "en": "Scrophularia contains iridoid glycosides such as harpagoside with anti-inflammatory, hypotensive, mild hypoglycemic and sedative effects, underlying its heat-clearing, blood-cooling and yin-nourishing actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "热入营血、温毒发斑",
          "indication_en": "Heat entering the nutritive-blood level with maculopapular eruptions",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "阴虚发热、咽喉肿痛",
          "indication_en": "Yin-deficient fever and throat swelling",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出玄参十八反反藜芦，与半夏、附子等十八反禁忌须遵守。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Xuan Shen is part of the eighteen antagonisms and is incompatible with Li Lu (Veratrum)."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以哈巴俄苷及哈巴苷为质量控制指标。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses harpagoside and harpagide as quality markers."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "qing_hao",
    "slug": "qing-hao",
    "name_zh": "青蒿",
    "name_pinyin": "Qīng Hāo",
    "name_en": "Sweet Wormwood",
    "name_latin": "Artemisiae Annuae Herba",
    "category": "清虚热药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清透虚热",
        "en": "Clear and vent deficiency heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "凉血除蒸",
        "en": "Cool the blood and relieve steaming bone fever"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解暑",
        "en": "Relieve summerheat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "截疟",
        "en": "Interrupt malarial attacks"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "温病后期，邪伏阴分，夜热早凉",
        "en": "Late-stage warm disease with pathogen lurking in the yin aspect and fever at night that abates by morning"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴虚发热，骨蒸劳热",
        "en": "Yin-deficiency fever and steaming bone taxation heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "暑热外感，发热头痛",
        "en": "Summerheat exterior syndrome with fever and headache"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疟疾寒热",
        "en": "Malarial alternating chills and fever"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热黄疸",
        "en": "Damp-heat jaundice"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "苦寒，脾胃虚寒者慎用。产后血虚、内寒腹泻者忌服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤6–12g，不宜久煎；治疟疾可用至20–40g，宜鲜品绞汁服或后下，以免其有效成分青蒿素因高温久煎而破坏。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "鲜青蒿",
        "method": "鲜用绞汁",
        "effect": "截疟力最强，古法以鲜品绞汁服用，现代研究证实其抗疟有效成分青蒿素不耐高温，鲜品绞汁或冷浸保存药力最佳"
      },
      {
        "name": "干青蒿",
        "method": "阴干",
        "effect": "清透虚热、凉血除蒸，入汤剂宜后下，煎煮时间不宜超过10分钟，以免青蒿素及挥发油损失"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "煎煮须注意：本品含青蒿素等不耐热成分，久煎则有效成分大量损失，故应后下或鲜品绞汁服用。苦寒性质易伤脾胃，脾虚便溏者慎用。孕妇慎服。过量可致恶心、腹痛。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "wen_bing_tiao_bian",
        "classification": "退虚热之品",
        "passage": "夜热早凉，热退无汗，热自阴来者，青蒿鳖甲汤主之。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物黄花蒿的干燥地上部分。归肝、胆经。为清透阴分伏热之要药。吴鞠通青蒿鳖甲汤以青蒿配鳖甲，治温病后期邪伏阴分、夜热早凉之证，取其\"先入后出\"——鳖甲入阴搜邪，青蒿领邪外透。二十世纪屠呦呦从本品中分离出青蒿素，成为现代抗疟名药，亦佐证葛洪《肘后方》\"青蒿一握，水二升渍，绞取汁\"之古法用意——避免高温破坏有效成分。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q189393",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "artemisinin",
          "name_zh": "青蒿素",
          "category": "sesquiterpene lactone endoperoxide",
          "notes": "trace amounts in raw herb; aqueous decoction destroys activity"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "artemether / artesunate",
          "category": "semisynthetic derivatives of artemisinin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "scopoletin",
          "category": "coumarin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "artemisinic acid",
          "category": "sesquiterpenoid precursor"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "青蒿含倍半萜内酯青蒿素及其衍生物，为当代抗恶性疟疾一线药物的原型，屠呦呦团队因此于 2015 年获诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。",
        "en": "Artemisia annua yields the sesquiterpene lactone endoperoxide artemisinin and its derivatives, prototype of frontline antimalarials for Plasmodium falciparum; Tu Youyou's team received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this discovery."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "恶性疟疾（以提取物或青蒿素衍生物为主）",
          "indication_en": "P. falciparum malaria (as extract or artemisinin derivatives)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "阴虚发热、骨蒸劳热",
          "indication_en": "Yin-deficiency fever, steaming-bone tidal fever",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "暑热外感、湿温初起",
          "indication_en": "Summer-heat and early-stage damp-warm syndromes",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 推荐青蒿素为基础的联合疗法 (ACT) 为无并发症恶性疟疾的首选治疗。",
          "note_en": "WHO recommends artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) as first-line treatment for uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载青蒿素遇热易破坏，故传统煎煮难显抗疟作用，屠呦呦团队采用低温乙醚提取。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that artemisinin is heat-sensitive and traditional decoction largely destroys it; Tu Youyou's team used cold ether extraction."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述青蒿素通过血红素催化产生自由基破坏疟原虫膜结构。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize that artemisinin exerts antimalarial action via heme-catalyzed free radicals that damage Plasmodium membranes."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "huo_ma_ren",
    "slug": "huo-ma-ren",
    "name_zh": "火麻仁",
    "name_pinyin": "Huǒ Má Rén",
    "name_en": "Hemp Seed",
    "name_latin": "Cannabis Fructus",
    "category": "润下药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "润肠通便",
        "en": "Moisten the intestines and unblock the bowels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "滋养补虚",
        "en": "Enrich and nourish deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润燥",
        "en": "Moisten dryness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "养阴生津",
        "en": "Nourish yin and generate fluids"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "血虚津亏，肠燥便秘",
        "en": "Blood deficiency and fluid depletion with dry intestines and constipation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "年老体弱、产后、病后津伤便秘",
        "en": "Constipation from fluid injury in the elderly, postpartum, or after illness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "习惯性便秘",
        "en": "Habitual constipation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消渴，小便不利",
        "en": "Wasting-thirst (xiao ke) with scanty urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风痹瘙痒，疮癣",
        "en": "Wind painful obstruction with itching, sores, and lichen"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾虚便溏、肠滑泄泻者慎用。大剂量（60–120g）服用可引起中毒反应（恶心、呕吐、四肢麻木），须控制用量。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "打碎入煎。润下药中药性最为平和，适合老人、产妇、虚人便秘。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生火麻仁",
        "method": "生用，打碎",
        "effect": "润肠通便力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒火麻仁",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "缓和油腻之性，便于煎出有效成分"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "一次性过量服用（60g以上）曾有中毒报告，表现为恶心呕吐、肢体麻木、烦躁不安。严格控制用量，打碎后入煎以利吸收。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主补中益气，肥健不老神仙。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "桑科植物大麻的干燥成熟果实。归脾、胃、大肠经。为润下药代表药，药性平和，质润多脂，能润燥滑肠而不伤正气，故老人、产妇及体虚津亏之肠燥便秘皆可应用，与大黄、芒硝等攻下药迥别。常配杏仁、当归、白芍，即仲景麻子仁丸之法。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "fixed oil (linoleic and α-linolenic acid)",
          "name_zh": "脂肪油（亚油酸、α-亚麻酸）",
          "category": "polyunsaturated fatty acids",
          "notes": "~30% of seed"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cannabinoids (trace)",
          "name_zh": "大麻酚类（微量）",
          "category": "cannabinoid",
          "notes": "seed trace only; non-psychoactive at culinary/medicinal doses"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "edestin protein",
          "name_zh": "大麻球蛋白",
          "category": "storage protein"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "phytosterols",
          "name_zh": "植物甾醇",
          "category": "sterol"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "火麻仁富含脂肪油和蛋白质，通过润肠通便及滋养作用缓解津亏便秘，并具一定调脂作用。",
        "en": "Hemp seed is rich in fixed oil and protein, relieving dryness constipation by lubricating the bowel and nourishing, with modest lipid-modulating effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "老年及产后津亏性便秘",
          "indication_en": "Dryness constipation in the elderly and postpartum",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "血脂调节（膳食补充）",
          "indication_en": "Dietary lipid modulation",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "火麻仁甘平润下，用于津枯肠燥便秘，老人、产妇及体虚者尤宜。",
          "note_en": "Sweet and neutral, moistens the intestines for dryness constipation — especially in the elderly, postpartum, and debilitated."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "润滑作用源自脂肪油；动物实验显示调脂及缓泻效应。",
          "note_en": "Lubricant action derives from the fixed oil; animal studies show lipid-modulating and mild laxative effects."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以脂肪油含量（不少于 30%）为质量指标，要求去除药典外大麻活性品种。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies fixed oil content (≥30%) and excludes psychoactive Cannabis chemotypes."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "yu_li_ren",
    "slug": "yu-li-ren",
    "name_zh": "郁李仁",
    "name_pinyin": "Yù Lǐ Rén",
    "name_en": "Bush Cherry Seed",
    "name_latin": "Pruni Semen",
    "category": "润下药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "润肠通便",
        "en": "Moisten the intestines and unblock the bowels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利水消肿",
        "en": "Promote urination and reduce edema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "下气行滞",
        "en": "Direct qi downward and move stagnation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润燥滑肠",
        "en": "Moisten dryness and lubricate the intestines"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肠燥便秘，兼腹胀气滞",
        "en": "Dry-intestine constipation with abdominal distention and qi stagnation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "食积气滞，腹胀便秘",
        "en": "Food accumulation and qi stagnation with distention and constipation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "水肿胀满，脚气浮肿",
        "en": "Edema and distention, foot-qi (beriberi) with swelling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "小便不利",
        "en": "Urinary difficulty"
      },
      {
        "zh": "产后肠燥便秘",
        "en": "Postpartum dry-intestine constipation"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇慎用。阴虚津亏者及大便不实者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "打碎入煎。较火麻仁润下之力稍强，且兼行气利水，适合兼气滞、水肿之便秘。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生郁李仁",
        "method": "去壳取仁，打碎",
        "effect": "润肠通便，利水消肿"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒郁李仁",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "缓其润滑之性"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含苦杏仁苷类成分，过量可引起恶心呕吐。孕妇慎用以防动胎。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "味酸，平。主大腹水肿，面目四肢浮肿，利小便水道。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蔷薇科植物欧李、郁李或长柄扁桃的干燥成熟种子。归脾、大肠、小肠经。润下药之一，润肠通便之力较火麻仁为强，且能下气利水，故尤宜于大肠气滞、津枯肠燥之便秘，及水肿脚气、小便不利者，体现润下兼行气利水之特色。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "fatty oil (oleic, linoleic)",
          "name_zh": "脂肪油",
          "category": "lipid",
          "notes": "principal laxative component acting by intestinal lubrication"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "amygdalin",
          "name_zh": "苦杏仁苷",
          "category": "cyanogenic glycoside",
          "notes": "trace cyanogenic glycoside; dose limits apply"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "prunuside",
          "category": "glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "vitamin B1 / sitosterol",
          "category": "phytosterol/vitamin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "郁李仁富含脂肪油并含少量苦杏仁苷类成分，通过润滑肠道和轻度刺激肠蠕动发挥润下通便及利水消肿作用。",
        "en": "Prunus seed (Yu Li Ren) is rich in fatty oil with small amounts of cyanogenic glycosides, producing moistening laxative and mild diuretic effects via intestinal lubrication and gentle peristaltic stimulation."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "津枯肠燥便秘（尤宜老人、产后）",
          "indication_en": "Constipation from depleted fluids and intestinal dryness (especially elderly and postpartum)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "水肿、脚气",
          "indication_en": "Edema and beriberi-type leg swelling",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出郁李仁较火麻仁泻下力强，孕妇慎用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Yu Li Ren is stronger than Huo Ma Ren as a purgative and should be used cautiously in pregnancy."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 介绍郁李仁兼具润肠和利尿作用，常用于便秘合并水肿者。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen describe combined moistening laxative and diuretic effects, useful when constipation coexists with edema."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "du_huo",
    "slug": "du-huo",
    "name_zh": "独活",
    "name_pinyin": "Dú Huó",
    "name_en": "Pubescent Angelica Root",
    "name_latin": "Angelicae Pubescentis Radix",
    "category": "祛风湿药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "祛风湿",
        "en": "Dispel wind-dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通痹止痛",
        "en": "Unblock painful obstruction and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解表散寒",
        "en": "Release the exterior and disperse cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛少阴伏风",
        "en": "Expel latent wind from the Shaoyin channels"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风寒湿痹，腰膝疼痛",
        "en": "Wind-cold-damp painful obstruction with pain of the lower back and knees"
      },
      {
        "zh": "下肢痿软，屈伸不利",
        "en": "Weakness of the lower limbs with impaired flexion and extension"
      },
      {
        "zh": "少阴头痛，齿痛",
        "en": "Shaoyin-type headache and toothache"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风寒感冒，头身疼痛",
        "en": "Wind-cold common cold with headache and body aches"
      },
      {
        "zh": "皮肤湿痒",
        "en": "Damp itching of the skin"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚血燥者慎用。气血亏虚之痹证须配补益药。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生独活",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "祛风湿，通痹止痛"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含呋喃香豆素类成分，外用或大量内服偶见光敏反应。阴虚火旺者慎用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦，平。主风寒所击，金疮止痛，奔豚，痫痓，女子疝瘕。久服轻身耐老。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "伞形科植物重齿毛当归的干燥根。归肾、膀胱经。为祛风湿、止痹痛之要药，性善下行，主入肾经，长于祛下半身之风寒湿痹，与羌活（善走上半身、祛太阳经风湿）相对为用。仲景独活寄生汤以独活配桑寄生、杜仲治风寒湿痹日久、肝肾两亏、腰膝冷痛，为千古名方。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "osthole",
          "name_zh": "蛇床子素",
          "category": "coumarin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "columbianadin",
          "category": "coumarin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "angelica essential oil",
          "name_zh": "独活挥发油",
          "category": "volatile oil"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "独活主含香豆素类（蛇床子素、哥伦比亚素）及挥发油，药理示其抗炎、镇痛、解痉、降压与光敏活性。",
        "en": "Duhuo contains coumarins (osthole, columbianadin) and essential oil; pharmacology shows anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antispasmodic, antihypertensive and photosensitizing activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "风湿痹痛、腰膝疼痛",
          "indication_en": "Wind-damp arthralgia, low-back and knee pain",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "类风湿关节炎辅助",
          "indication_en": "Rheumatoid arthritis (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "头痛、偏头痛（风湿头痛）",
          "indication_en": "Headache including migraine of wind-damp type",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以蛇床子素与二氢欧山芹醇当归酸酯作为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses osthole and columbianadin as assay markers."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "独活寄生汤为治疗慢性风寒湿痹经典方。",
          "note_en": "Duhuo Jisheng Tang is the classical formula for chronic wind-cold-damp bi syndrome."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "含呋喃香豆素，可能引起光敏反应并与某些药物相互作用。",
          "note_en": "Contains furanocoumarins; potential photosensitivity and drug interaction risk."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "fang_ji",
    "slug": "fang-ji",
    "name_zh": "防己",
    "name_pinyin": "Fáng Jǐ",
    "name_en": "Stephania Root",
    "name_latin": "Stephaniae Tetrandrae Radix",
    "category": "祛风湿药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "祛风湿止痛",
        "en": "Dispel wind-dampness and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利水消肿",
        "en": "Promote urination and reduce edema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热",
        "en": "Clear heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通络",
        "en": "Unblock the collaterals"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风湿热痹，关节红肿热痛",
        "en": "Wind-damp-heat painful obstruction with red, swollen, hot, painful joints"
      },
      {
        "zh": "水肿，小便不利",
        "en": "Edema with urinary difficulty"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脚气浮肿",
        "en": "Foot-qi (beriberi) with swelling of the lower limbs"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风水表虚，一身悉肿",
        "en": "Wind-water exterior deficiency with generalized edema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿疹疮毒",
        "en": "Damp rash and toxic sores"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "食欲不振及阴虚无湿热者忌服。脾胃虚寒者慎用。严禁误用广防己（马兜铃科，含马兜铃酸）以防肾毒。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 4.5,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "宜用粉防己（汉防己，Stephania tetrandra），利水消肿力胜；木防己（青风藤类）偏于祛风通络止痛。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生防己",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "祛风湿，利水消肿"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品所指为粉防己（汉防己，Stephaniae Tetrandrae Radix），非马兜铃科广防己（Aristolochia fangchi，含肾毒性马兜铃酸，已在多国禁用）。处方调剂须严格区分品种。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味辛，平。主风寒温疟，热气诸痫，除邪，利大小便。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "防己科植物粉防己（汉防己）的干燥根。归膀胱、肺经。祛风湿、止痹痛兼利水消肿之要药，尤宜于风湿热痹之关节红肿热痛及风水、皮水之水肿。古有粉防己（汉防己，利水消肿为长）与木防己（青风藤类，祛风通络止痛为长）之分，临证须明辨所用品种，不可混同马兜铃科之广防己以防肾损。仲景防己黄芪汤、防己茯苓汤即其代表方。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "tetrandrine",
          "name_zh": "粉防己碱（汉防己甲素）",
          "category": "bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "fangchinoline",
          "name_zh": "防己诺林碱",
          "category": "bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "粉防己（汉防己，Stephania tetrandra）主含双苄基异喹啉生物碱（粉防己碱、防己诺林碱），药理示其钙通道阻滞、降压、抗炎、抗纤维化与抗肿瘤作用。",
        "en": "Fangji (Stephania tetrandra) contains bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids (tetrandrine, fangchinoline); pharmacology shows calcium channel blockade, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antifibrotic and antitumor activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "高血压",
          "indication_en": "Hypertension",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "矽肺（尘肺）",
          "indication_en": "Silicosis",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "风湿痹痛、关节炎",
          "indication_en": "Wind-damp arthralgia and arthritis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》仅收载粉防己（Stephania tetrandra），严禁使用含马兜铃酸的广防己（Aristolochia fangchi）。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists only Stephania tetrandra; Aristolochia fangchi (containing aristolochic acid) is prohibited."
        },
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 与多国监管机构均警示广防己类马兜铃酸肾毒性及致癌风险。",
          "note_en": "WHO and regulators warn of aristolochic acid nephrotoxicity and carcinogenicity from Aristolochia species."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "应严格区分粉防己与广防己以避免误用。",
          "note_en": "Strict botanical identification is required to avoid substitution with Aristolochia species."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "sang_ji_sheng",
    "slug": "sang-ji-sheng",
    "name_zh": "桑寄生",
    "name_pinyin": "Sāng Jì Shēng",
    "name_en": "Mulberry Mistletoe",
    "name_latin": "Taxilli Herba",
    "category": "祛风湿药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "祛风湿",
        "en": "Dispel wind-dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "补肝肾",
        "en": "Tonify the Liver and Kidney"
      },
      {
        "zh": "强筋骨",
        "en": "Strengthen the sinews and bones"
      },
      {
        "zh": "安胎元",
        "en": "Quiet and secure the fetus"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风湿痹痛，腰膝酸软",
        "en": "Wind-damp painful obstruction with soreness and weakness of the lower back and knees"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝肾不足，筋骨痿弱",
        "en": "Liver and Kidney insufficiency with weak sinews and bones"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝肾亏虚之头晕目眩",
        "en": "Dizziness and blurred vision from Liver-Kidney deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "冲任不固，胎动不安，崩漏下血",
        "en": "Insecurity of the Chong and Ren with restless fetus, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "妊娠漏血，胎漏下血",
        "en": "Vaginal bleeding during pregnancy and threatened miscarriage"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "无明显禁忌，但须来源于桑树者为佳。寄生于有毒树木（如马桑、夹竹桃）者不可药用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生桑寄生",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "祛风湿，补肝肾，强筋骨，安胎"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "寄生植物，须来源于桑树者安全。寄生于马桑等有毒植物者含马桑内酯等神经毒素，严禁药用。古方寿胎丸（张锡纯）以桑寄生配菟丝子、续断、阿胶治胎动不安，为安胎名方。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦，平。主腰痛，小儿背强，痈肿，安胎，充肌肤，坚发齿，长须眉。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "桑寄生科植物桑寄生的干燥带叶茎枝。归肝、肾经。祛风湿药中兼补肝肾、强筋骨者，特别适用于痹证日久、肝肾亏虚之腰膝酸痛；又为安胎要药，与续断、菟丝子、阿胶相配治冲任不固之胎漏胎动。仲景独活寄生汤即以之配独活、杜仲等治风寒湿痹日久、肝肾两虚之证。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "quercetin",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "avicularin",
          "category": "flavonoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "oleanolic acid",
          "category": "pentacyclic triterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "桑寄生含黄酮（槲皮素、扁蓄苷）及齐墩果酸等三萜，现代药理研究相对有限，所报道的降压、抗炎及改善微循环作用多为动物实验与小样本临床观察；其主要临床地位仍基于传统补肝肾、强筋骨、祛风湿之功。",
        "en": "Taxillus (Sang Ji Sheng) contains flavonoids (quercetin, avicularin) and triterpenes such as oleanolic acid. Modern pharmacological data are comparatively thin — reports of antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, and microcirculation effects come mainly from animal studies and small clinical observations; its principal role remains grounded in traditional liver-kidney tonifying and wind-damp dispelling use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝肾亏虚、腰膝酸痛、风湿痹痛",
          "indication_en": "Liver-kidney deficiency with lumbar/knee soreness and wind-damp bi",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "胎动不安、习惯性流产辅助",
          "indication_en": "Restless fetus and threatened miscarriage (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出桑寄生现代药理数据有限，临床应用仍以传统功效为主导；并提醒须注意寄主植物（桑 vs 其他）带来的成分差异。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that modern pharmacological data on Taxillus are limited and clinical use remains largely traditional; host-tree differences (true mulberry vs. others) can affect composition."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述桑寄生提取物在动物模型中显示轻度降压及镇静作用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize mild hypotensive and sedative effects of Taxillus extracts in animal models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "qin_jiao",
    "slug": "qin-jiao",
    "name_zh": "秦艽",
    "name_pinyin": "Qín Jiāo",
    "name_en": "Large-Leaf Gentian Root",
    "name_latin": "Gentianae Macrophyllae Radix",
    "category": "祛风湿药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "祛风湿",
        "en": "Dispel wind-dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通络止痛",
        "en": "Unblock the collaterals and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "退虚热",
        "en": "Reduce deficiency heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清湿热",
        "en": "Clear damp-heat"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风湿痹痛，筋脉拘挛",
        "en": "Wind-damp painful obstruction with contracted sinews and vessels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "骨节烦痛，不论寒热新久",
        "en": "Painful joints from either cold or heat, acute or chronic"
      },
      {
        "zh": "中风半身不遂，口眼喎斜",
        "en": "Wind stroke with hemiplegia and deviation of the mouth and eye"
      },
      {
        "zh": "骨蒸潮热，疳积发热",
        "en": "Steaming bone tidal fever and childhood nutritional impairment fever"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热黄疸",
        "en": "Damp-heat jaundice"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "久痛虚羸、溲多、便滑者忌服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生秦艽",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "祛风湿，通络止痛，退虚热"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "药性平和，寒热虚实之痹证皆可配伍使用，素有风药中润剂之称。大剂量偶见恶心。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，平。主寒热邪气，寒湿风痹，肢节痛，下水，利小便。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "龙胆科植物秦艽、麻花秦艽、粗茎秦艽或小秦艽的干燥根。归胃、肝、胆经。祛风湿药中药性平和、寒热皆宜之品，有风药中润剂之称，与独活同能祛下半身风湿（对应羌活之长于上半身），但秦艽不燥不刚，又能退虚热、清湿热，故尤宜于痹证日久兼阴亏有热，及骨蒸潮热、湿热黄疸。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "gentianine",
          "name_zh": "秦艽碱甲",
          "category": "secoiridoid alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "gentianidine",
          "category": "alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "gentiopicroside",
          "category": "secoiridoid glycoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "秦艽含龙胆生物碱及苦苷，现代研究显示其具抗炎、镇痛、解热及升血糖（动物实验）作用，与传统祛风湿、清虚热之功相符。",
        "en": "Gentiana macrophylla contains iridoid alkaloids (gentianine) and gentiopicroside, with anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, and (in animal studies) glucose-elevating effects that parallel its traditional wind-damp dispelling and deficiency-heat clearing use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "风湿痹痛、关节红肿",
          "indication_en": "Wind-damp arthralgia with red, swollen joints",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "骨蒸潮热、阴虚发热",
          "indication_en": "Steaming-bone tidal fever, yin-deficiency fever",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出秦艽为风药中之润剂，可用于热痹。",
          "note_en": "Bensky describes Qin Jiao as a moistening wind-medicine suitable even for hot bi (joint) syndromes."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述秦艽碱甲的抗炎镇痛作用，作用机制与肾上腺皮质激素样效应相关。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of gentianine, partly mediated via adrenocortical-like mechanisms."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "mu_gua",
    "slug": "mu-gua",
    "name_zh": "木瓜",
    "name_pinyin": "Mù Guā",
    "name_en": "Chinese Quince Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Chaenomelis Fructus",
    "category": "祛风湿药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sour"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "舒筋活络",
        "en": "Relax the sinews and unblock the collaterals"
      },
      {
        "zh": "和胃化湿",
        "en": "Harmonize the Stomach and transform dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "除湿止痹",
        "en": "Eliminate dampness and stop painful obstruction"
      },
      {
        "zh": "生津开胃",
        "en": "Generate fluids and open the appetite"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风湿痹痛，筋脉拘挛，腰膝关节酸重疼痛",
        "en": "Wind-damp painful obstruction with contracted sinews and heavy, sore pain of the lower back and knees"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脚气水肿，胫膝肿痛",
        "en": "Foot-qi (beriberi) with swelling and pain of the legs and knees"
      },
      {
        "zh": "吐泻转筋，腹痛腓肠拘急",
        "en": "Vomiting and diarrhea with muscle cramping and contracted calf muscles"
      },
      {
        "zh": "暑湿伤中，呕吐泄泻",
        "en": "Summerheat-damp injury to the middle with vomiting and diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消化不良，食少",
        "en": "Indigestion with poor appetite"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "胃酸过多者不宜。内有郁热、小便短赤者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生木瓜",
        "method": "去皮切片晒干",
        "effect": "舒筋活络，和胃化湿"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒木瓜",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "缓和酸敛之性，偏于和胃止呕"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "味酸入肝，舒筋活络，为治湿痹筋脉拘挛、脚气转筋之要药。药用宣木瓜（Chaenomeles speciosa）非食用番木瓜（Carica papaya），两者科属、功用迥异。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "passage": "木瓜，治脚气冲心，腹胀不仁，筋脉拘挛，足胫肿痛。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蔷薇科植物贴梗海棠（宣木瓜）的干燥近成熟果实。归肝、脾经。味酸入肝，善舒筋活络，为治风湿痹痛、筋脉拘急及脚气转筋之要药；又能和胃化湿、生津开胃，用于暑湿吐泻、转筋腹痛。须与食用番木瓜（Carica papaya，蕃木瓜）严格区分。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "organic acids (malic, citric, tartaric)",
          "name_zh": "有机酸（苹果酸、柠檬酸、酒石酸）",
          "category": "organic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "oleanolic and ursolic acids",
          "name_zh": "齐墩果酸与熊果酸",
          "category": "triterpene acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "flavonoids",
          "name_zh": "黄酮类",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "vitamin C",
          "name_zh": "维生素 C",
          "category": "vitamin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "木瓜（Chaenomeles）含有机酸、三萜酸及黄酮，具抗炎、解痉、舒筋活络及保肝作用。",
        "en": "Chaenomeles fruit contains organic acids, triterpene acids, and flavonoids with anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, muscle-relaxing, and hepatoprotective effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "湿痹筋脉拘挛及腓肠肌痉挛",
          "indication_en": "Damp-bi with muscle cramping and calf spasm",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "风湿性关节炎辅助",
          "indication_en": "Rheumatic arthritis adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝炎辅助调理",
          "indication_en": "Hepatitis supportive care",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "木瓜酸温入肝脾，舒筋活络化湿和胃，为湿痹腰腿痛常用。",
          "note_en": "Sour and warm, entering liver and spleen — relaxes sinews, activates channels, transforms damp, and harmonizes stomach; common for damp-bi."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "齐墩果酸具保肝作用；有机酸缓解肌肉痉挛。",
          "note_en": "Oleanolic acid is hepatoprotective; organic acids relieve muscle spasm."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以齐墩果酸和熊果酸总量（不少于 0.50%）为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies combined oleanolic and ursolic acid (≥0.50%) as the quality marker."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "huo_xiang",
    "slug": "huo-xiang",
    "name_zh": "藿香",
    "name_pinyin": "Huò Xiāng",
    "name_en": "Patchouli / Agastache",
    "name_latin": "Pogostemonis Herba",
    "category": "化湿药",
    "nature": "slightly_warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "芳香化湿",
        "en": "Aromatically transform dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "和中止呕",
        "en": "Harmonize the middle and stop vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "发表解暑",
        "en": "Release the exterior and relieve summerheat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "开胃进食",
        "en": "Open the appetite and promote eating"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "湿浊中阻，脘腹痞满，食欲不振",
        "en": "Damp turbidity obstructing the middle with epigastric and abdominal fullness and poor appetite"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿阻中焦之呕吐恶心",
        "en": "Nausea and vomiting from dampness obstructing the middle jiao"
      },
      {
        "zh": "暑湿表证，发热头痛，胸闷",
        "en": "Summerheat-damp exterior pattern with fever, headache, and chest oppression"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿温病初起，身热倦怠",
        "en": "Early-stage damp-warm disease with fever and fatigue"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒湿闭暑之外感风寒、内伤生冷",
        "en": "Cold-damp blocking summerheat from external wind-cold invasion and internal injury from raw and cold foods"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚血燥、胃热作呕者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "鲜品加倍（15–30g）。治暑湿宜鲜藿香，解表化湿力胜；干品多用于湿阻中焦。不宜久煎以免香气散失。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "鲜藿香",
        "method": "鲜用",
        "effect": "发表解暑、芳香化湿力胜，夏令暑湿证尤宜"
      },
      {
        "name": "干藿香",
        "method": "阴干",
        "effect": "化湿和中，止呕开胃"
      },
      {
        "name": "藿香叶",
        "method": "取叶",
        "effect": "偏于发表解暑"
      },
      {
        "name": "藿香梗",
        "method": "取梗",
        "effect": "偏于和中止呕"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "现代药用藿香多为唇形科广藿香（Pogostemon cablin）。古方藿香正气散为代表方，治外感风寒、内伤湿滞之暑湿证。不宜久煎，后下或短煎以存其芳香之气。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "passage": "藿香正气散，治伤寒头疼，憎寒壮热，上喘咳嗽，五劳七伤，八般风痰，五般膈气，心腹冷痛，反胃呕恶，气泻霍乱。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "唇形科植物广藿香的干燥地上部分。归脾、胃、肺经。化湿药代表药，芳香性温而不燥烈，既能芳化中焦湿浊、和中止呕，又能外解暑湿表邪，为暑月外感风寒、内伤生冷之要药，局方藿香正气散即以之为君。鲜品较干品发表解暑之力更胜，夏季暑湿证尤宜。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "patchouli alcohol (patchoulol)",
          "name_zh": "广藿香醇",
          "category": "sesquiterpene alcohol",
          "notes": "principal essential-oil marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "pogostone",
          "name_zh": "广藿香酮",
          "category": "pyranone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "β-patchoulene",
          "name_zh": "β-广藿香烯",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "essential oil (volatile)",
          "name_zh": "挥发油",
          "category": "volatile oil mixture"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "藿香挥发油（广藿香醇等）具抗菌、抗真菌、解痉、调节胃肠动力及抗炎作用。",
        "en": "Agastache/Pogostemon essential oil (notably patchoulol) shows antibacterial, antifungal, antispasmodic, gut-motility modulating, and anti-inflammatory activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "暑湿型急性胃肠炎",
          "indication_en": "Summer-damp acute gastroenteritis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "功能性消化不良",
          "indication_en": "Functional dyspepsia",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "口腔及皮肤真菌感染外用",
          "indication_en": "Topical oral and dermal fungal infection",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "广藿香醇抑制金黄色葡萄球菌和白色念珠菌；调节胃肠平滑肌。",
          "note_en": "Patchoulol inhibits S. aureus and Candida albicans and modulates GI smooth muscle tone."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "藿香芳香化湿，醒脾开胃，暑月常用。",
          "note_en": "Aromatic herb that transforms damp and revives the spleen; a summer-season staple."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以广藿香醇和广藿香酮为质量控制指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies patchoulol and pogostone as quality markers."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "pei_lan",
    "slug": "pei-lan",
    "name_zh": "佩兰",
    "name_pinyin": "Pèi Lán",
    "name_en": "Eupatorium Herb",
    "name_latin": "Eupatorii Herba",
    "category": "化湿药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "芳香化湿",
        "en": "Aromatically transform dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "醒脾开胃",
        "en": "Arouse the Spleen and open the appetite"
      },
      {
        "zh": "发表解暑",
        "en": "Release the exterior and relieve summerheat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化浊辟秽",
        "en": "Transform turbidity and dispel foulness"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "湿浊中阻，脘痞呕恶",
        "en": "Damp turbidity obstructing the middle with epigastric fullness and nausea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "口中甜腻、口臭（脾瘅）",
        "en": "Sweet-greasy taste in the mouth and halitosis (Spleen dan disorder)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "暑湿表证，头胀胸闷",
        "en": "Summerheat-damp exterior pattern with head distention and chest oppression"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿温病初起",
        "en": "Early-stage damp-warm disease"
      },
      {
        "zh": "食少体倦，苔白厚腻",
        "en": "Poor appetite and fatigue with thick white greasy tongue coating"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚血燥者、气虚者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "鲜品加倍（15–30g），暑湿、湿温证以鲜佩兰为佳。不宜久煎。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "鲜佩兰",
        "method": "鲜用",
        "effect": "化湿解暑力强，夏令暑湿证尤宜"
      },
      {
        "name": "干佩兰",
        "method": "阴干",
        "effect": "芳香化湿，醒脾开胃"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "《黄帝内经·素问·奇病论》载有治脾瘅一方：治之以兰，除陈气也，即指本品。为治口甘苔腻、湿浊困脾之专药。不宜久煎以免香气散失。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "huang_di_nei_jing",
        "passage": "有病口甘者，病名为何？何以得之？岐伯曰：此五气之溢也，名曰脾瘅。治之以兰，除陈气也。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物佩兰的干燥地上部分。归脾、胃、肺经。芳香化湿之要药，与藿香相须为用，然佩兰性平，偏于化湿醒脾，藿香微温，偏于和中止呕。《内经》治脾瘅口甘一证首推本品，谓之除陈气，即后世湿浊内蕴化热之的对之药。暑湿、湿温初起，鲜品力胜。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "p-cymene",
          "category": "monoterpene (volatile oil)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "thymohydroquinone dimethyl ether",
          "category": "volatile oil component"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "coumarins (incl. o-coumaric acid)",
          "name_zh": "香豆素类",
          "category": "coumarin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "佩兰为菊科泽兰，含挥发油及香豆素类成分，具抗炎、祛痰与抑菌作用，对应传统芳香化湿、醒脾开胃之功。",
        "en": "Eupatorium (Pei Lan) yields a volatile oil and coumarin compounds with anti-inflammatory, expectorant, and antimicrobial actions, corresponding to its traditional aromatic dampness-transforming and appetite-rousing use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "暑湿感冒、胸闷脘痞",
          "indication_en": "Summer-damp colds with chest oppression and epigastric fullness",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "口甜口黏、湿阻中焦",
          "indication_en": "Sweet/sticky taste in mouth from middle-jiao dampness",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 强调佩兰常与藿香同用化湿，宜后下以保存挥发油。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Pei Lan is typically paired with Huo Xiang for dampness transformation and should be added late in decoction to preserve its volatile oil."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 记载佩兰挥发油对多种呼吸道病原菌有抑制作用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen report that Pei Lan volatile oil inhibits several respiratory pathogens in vitro."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "sha_ren",
    "slug": "sha-ren",
    "name_zh": "砂仁",
    "name_pinyin": "Shā Rén",
    "name_en": "Villous Amomum Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Amomi Fructus",
    "category": "化湿药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "化湿行气",
        "en": "Transform dampness and move qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温中止泻",
        "en": "Warm the middle and stop diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "理气安胎",
        "en": "Regulate qi and quiet the fetus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "开胃消食",
        "en": "Open the appetite and disperse food stagnation"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "湿阻中焦，脘腹胀满",
        "en": "Dampness obstructing the middle jiao with epigastric and abdominal fullness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾胃气滞，食少纳呆，嗳气呕恶",
        "en": "Spleen-Stomach qi stagnation with poor appetite, belching, and nausea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾胃虚寒，吐泻腹痛",
        "en": "Spleen-Stomach vacuity cold with vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "妊娠恶阻，胎动不安",
        "en": "Morning sickness and restless fetus in pregnancy"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒湿泻痢",
        "en": "Cold-damp diarrhea and dysentery"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚血燥、火热内盛者慎用。不宜久煎。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 6,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "入煎剂宜后下（在其他药煎成前5分钟加入），以存其芳香之气。打碎使用。过早入煎则有效挥发油散失。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生砂仁",
        "method": "打碎，后下",
        "effect": "化湿行气，温中安胎"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐砂仁",
        "method": "盐水炒",
        "effect": "引药下行，偏于温肾缩尿"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "后下药——在其他药煎至将成时（约最后5分钟）打碎投入，以免挥发性有效成分（乙酸龙脑酯等）散失。阴虚火旺者不宜。为妇科安胎良药，与白术相配治妊娠气滞恶阻、胎动不安。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "passage": "缩砂蜜，治一切气，宿食不消，赤白泻痢，腹中虚痛，消化水谷，温暖脾胃。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "姜科植物阳春砂、绿壳砂或海南砂的干燥成熟果实。归脾、胃、肾经。化湿药中兼行气温中、安胎之要药，为醒脾调胃、行气止痛之常用品。入煎剂须打碎后下，以存其芳香挥发之气。与白术相配善治妊娠气滞恶阻及胎动不安，香砂六君子汤、香砂养胃丸皆以之为主药。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "bornyl acetate",
          "name_zh": "乙酸龙脑酯",
          "category": "monoterpene ester (volatile oil)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "camphor",
          "category": "monoterpene ketone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "d-limonene",
          "category": "monoterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "砂仁为姜科豆蔻属果实，主含挥发油（乙酸龙脑酯、樟脑等），现代研究显示促胃肠动力、抗溃疡、抗炎及利胆作用，对应传统化湿行气、温中止泻、安胎之功。",
        "en": "Amomum fruit is dominated by a volatile oil rich in bornyl acetate, camphor, and limonene, with preclinical evidence for prokinetic, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, and choleretic effects that align with its traditional dampness-transforming, middle-warming, and fetus-calming use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾胃气滞湿阻、脘腹胀满",
          "indication_en": "Spleen-stomach qi stagnation with dampness and epigastric fullness",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "妊娠恶阻、胎动不安",
          "indication_en": "Morning sickness and restless fetus",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "寒湿泻痢",
          "indication_en": "Cold-damp diarrhea and dysentery",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 强调砂仁宜打碎后下以保存挥发油，阴虚血燥者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Sha Ren should be crushed and added late in decoction to preserve its volatile oil; use cautiously in yin-deficient/blood-dry patients."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述砂仁挥发油可促进胃酸分泌与胃肠蠕动，对应其醒脾开胃之效。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize that Sha Ren volatile oil promotes gastric secretion and GI motility, matching its traditional appetite-rousing action."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "yi_yi_ren",
    "slug": "yi-yi-ren",
    "name_zh": "薏苡仁",
    "name_pinyin": "Yì Yǐ Rén",
    "name_en": "Job's Tears Seed",
    "name_latin": "Coicis Semen",
    "category": "利水渗湿药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bland"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "利水渗湿",
        "en": "Promote urination and percolate dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "健脾止泻",
        "en": "Strengthen the Spleen and stop diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "除痹舒筋",
        "en": "Dispel painful obstruction and relax sinews"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热排脓",
        "en": "Clear heat and expel pus"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "水肿脚气，小便不利",
        "en": "Edema, beriberi, and difficult urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾虚湿盛，泄泻便溏",
        "en": "Spleen deficiency with dampness, diarrhea and loose stools"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿痹筋脉拘挛，屈伸不利",
        "en": "Damp painful obstruction with cramping of sinews and impaired flexion and extension"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺痈胸痛，咳吐脓痰",
        "en": "Lung abscess with chest pain and coughing of purulent phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肠痈腹痛",
        "en": "Intestinal abscess with abdominal pain"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "津液不足者及孕妇慎用。脾虚无湿、大便燥结者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 30,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "常用9–30g；本品力缓，用量宜大。健脾止泻宜炒用，余皆生用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生薏苡仁",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于利水渗湿、清热排脓、除痹"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒薏苡仁",
        "method": "麸炒或清炒",
        "effect": "健脾止泻作用增强，多用于脾虚泄泻"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "现代研究未见明显毒性。孕妇慎用，因本品滑利渗下，有学说谓其可致子宫收缩。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，微寒。主筋急拘挛不可屈伸，风湿痹，下气。久服轻身益气。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "禾本科植物薏苡的干燥成熟种仁。归脾、胃、肺经。为利水渗湿兼健脾之要药，药食两用，《金匮要略》薏苡附子败酱散治肠痈、麻杏苡甘汤治风湿身痛为其代表应用。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "coixenolide",
          "name_zh": "薏苡仁酯",
          "category": "triglyceride ester",
          "notes": "antitumor constituent in Kanglaite injection"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "coixol (6-methoxybenzoxazolinone)",
          "name_zh": "薏苡素",
          "category": "benzoxazinone",
          "notes": "anti-inflammatory and analgesic"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "coix seed oil",
          "name_zh": "薏苡仁油",
          "category": "fatty oil"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "coix polysaccharides",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "薏苡仁含薏苡仁酯、薏苡素及多糖，具有抗肿瘤、抗炎、镇痛、免疫调节和降糖作用；康莱特注射液（薏苡仁油乳剂）为国内肿瘤辅助治疗上市品种。",
        "en": "Coix seed contains coixenolide, coixol and polysaccharides with antitumor, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, immunomodulatory and hypoglycemic effects; Kanglaite injection (a coix seed oil emulsion) is a marketed adjunct oncology product in China."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肺癌、肝癌等恶性肿瘤辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjuvant treatment of lung, liver and other malignancies",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾虚湿盛之泄泻、水肿",
          "indication_en": "Diarrhea and edema from spleen deficiency with damp accumulation",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "湿痹拘挛",
          "indication_en": "Damp-painful obstruction with cramping",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 介绍康莱特注射液为薏苡仁油脂肪乳剂，联合化疗可改善晚期癌症患者生存质量。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen describe Kanglaite injection as a coix seed oil lipid emulsion that improves quality of life when combined with chemotherapy in advanced cancer."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》收载薏苡仁，以脂肪油含量为质量指标之一。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists Coix with fatty oil content among its quality criteria."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "che_qian_zi",
    "slug": "che-qian-zi",
    "name_zh": "车前子",
    "name_pinyin": "Chē Qián Zǐ",
    "name_en": "Plantago Seed",
    "name_latin": "Plantaginis Semen",
    "category": "利水渗湿药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "利水通淋",
        "en": "Promote urination and unblock painful urinary dribbling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "渗湿止泻",
        "en": "Percolate dampness and stop diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清肝明目",
        "en": "Clear the Liver and brighten the eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清肺化痰",
        "en": "Clear the Lung and transform phlegm"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "热淋涩痛，小便不利",
        "en": "Heat-type painful dribbling urination and difficult urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "水肿胀满",
        "en": "Edema with distention and fullness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "暑湿泄泻，小便短赤",
        "en": "Summerheat-damp diarrhea with scanty reddish urine"
      },
      {
        "zh": "目赤肿痛，目暗昏花",
        "en": "Red swollen painful eyes and dim blurry vision"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰热咳嗽",
        "en": "Phlegm-heat cough"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "肾虚精滑及内无湿热者慎用。孕妇慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "入汤剂宜包煎，以防其黏滑影响药液。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生车前子",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于利水通淋、清肝明目"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐车前子",
        "method": "盐水炒",
        "effect": "引药下行入肾，增强益肝明目之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品性寒而滑利，肾虚精滑者及无湿热之小便不利者忌用。孕妇慎用。包煎以避黏糊。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，寒。主气癃止痛，利水道小便，除湿痹。久服轻身耐老。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "车前科植物车前或平车前的干燥成熟种子。归肝、肾、肺、小肠经。为利水通淋之常用药，通利水道而不伤阴，兼能明目祛痰，历代多用于淋证与暑湿泄泻。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "plantago mucilage (arabinogalactan, rhamnogalacturonan)",
          "name_zh": "车前子黏液质",
          "category": "polysaccharide",
          "notes": "bulk laxative action"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "aucubin",
          "name_zh": "桃叶珊瑚苷",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "plantagin",
          "name_zh": "车前草素",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "车前子富含黏液质多糖、环烯醚萜苷（桃叶珊瑚苷）及黄酮类，具有利尿、缓泻、镇咳祛痰、抗炎及降尿酸作用。",
        "en": "Plantaginis Semen contains mucilaginous polysaccharides, iridoid glycosides (aucubin), and flavonoids, with diuretic, bulk-laxative, antitussive/expectorant, anti-inflammatory, and uricosuric activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "功能性便秘（黏液质容积性缓泻）",
          "indication_en": "Functional constipation (mucilage-based bulk laxative)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "湿热淋证（尿路感染）辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for damp-heat urinary tract infection",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "高脂血症（Plantago ovata 膳食纤维研究)",
          "indication_en": "Hyperlipidemia (evidence from Plantago ovata dietary fiber studies)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 专论收录车前子（Plantago）黏液质用于便秘、腹泻（双向调节）和高胆固醇血症的临床证据。",
          "note_en": "WHO monographs document clinical evidence for Plantago seeds/husks in constipation, diarrhea (bidirectional), and hypercholesterolemia."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出车前子入煎剂应包煎，以防黏液质溢出影响汤液。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that Che Qian Zi should be decocted in a cloth bag (bao jian) to prevent mucilage from clouding the decoction."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "yin_chen",
    "slug": "yin-chen",
    "name_zh": "茵陈",
    "name_pinyin": "Yīn Chén",
    "name_en": "Virgate Wormwood",
    "name_latin": "Artemisiae Scopariae Herba",
    "category": "利水渗湿药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清利湿热",
        "en": "Clear and drain damp-heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利胆退黄",
        "en": "Benefit the gallbladder and resolve jaundice"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解毒疗疮",
        "en": "Resolve toxicity and treat sores"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疏肝利胆",
        "en": "Course the Liver and benefit the gallbladder"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "黄疸尿少，身目俱黄",
        "en": "Jaundice with scanty urine and yellowing of the body and eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热内蕴之阳黄",
        "en": "Yang-type jaundice from internal damp-heat accumulation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒湿阻遏之阴黄",
        "en": "Yin-type jaundice from cold-damp obstruction"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿疮瘙痒",
        "en": "Damp skin lesions with itching"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿温暑湿，发热头重",
        "en": "Damp-warm and summerheat-damp patterns with fever and heavy head"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "蓄血发黄者及血虚萎黄者慎用。非因湿热者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "外用适量，煎汤熏洗。治黄疸宜重用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生茵陈",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "清利湿热退黄力强，为退黄要药"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品苦泄寒凉，脾胃虚寒者慎用。现代药理研究显示有利胆、保肝作用，但过量可致胃肠不适。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shang_han_lun",
        "passage": "伤寒七八日，身黄如橘子色，小便不利，腹微满者，茵陈蒿汤主之。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物滨蒿或茵陈蒿的干燥地上部分。春季采收者习称绵茵陈，秋季采收者习称花茵陈。归脾、胃、肝、胆经。为治黄疸之要药，《伤寒论》茵陈蒿汤配栀子、大黄以治阳黄。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "6,7-dimethylesculetin (capillarisin)",
          "name_zh": "6,7-二甲氧基香豆素 / 茵陈色原酮",
          "category": "coumarin/chromone",
          "notes": "choleretic marker compound"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "capillin",
          "name_zh": "茵陈炔酮",
          "category": "polyacetylene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "chlorogenic acid",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "scoparone",
          "name_zh": "滨蒿内酯",
          "category": "coumarin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "茵陈含 6,7-二甲氧基香豆素、茵陈色原酮及滨蒿内酯等成分，具有显著的利胆、保肝、降脂及解热作用，为清热利湿退黄的药理依据。",
        "en": "Artemisia capillaris contains 6,7-dimethylesculetin, capillarisin and scoparone with strong choleretic, hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic and antipyretic activities, providing the pharmacological basis for its heat-clearing, damp-draining and jaundice-resolving actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "新生儿黄疸",
          "indication_en": "Neonatal jaundice",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "急慢性肝炎、胆囊炎之黄疸",
          "indication_en": "Jaundice in acute or chronic hepatitis and cholecystitis",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "湿热黄疸证",
          "indication_en": "Damp-heat jaundice patterns",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述茵陈蒿汤及茵陈单味制剂在中国广泛用于新生儿黄疸，临床研究支持。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite Yin Chen Hao Tang and single-herb preparations in widespread Chinese clinical use for neonatal jaundice supported by clinical studies."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 提示个别报告显示大剂量长期使用茵陈可能引起肝毒性，须注意监测。",
          "note_en": "Brinker notes isolated reports of hepatotoxicity with large or prolonged doses; monitoring is advised."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以滨蒿内酯为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses scoparone as an assay marker."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "hua_shi",
    "slug": "hua-shi",
    "name_zh": "滑石",
    "name_pinyin": "Huá Shí",
    "name_en": "Talcum",
    "name_latin": "Talcum",
    "category": "利水渗湿药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bland"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "利水通淋",
        "en": "Promote urination and unblock painful urinary dribbling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清解暑热",
        "en": "Clear and resolve summerheat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛湿敛疮",
        "en": "Dispel dampness and astringe sores"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热泻火",
        "en": "Clear heat and drain fire"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "热淋涩痛，小便赤少",
        "en": "Heat-type painful dribbling urination with scanty reddish urine"
      },
      {
        "zh": "石淋尿血",
        "en": "Stone-type painful urinary dribbling with bloody urine"
      },
      {
        "zh": "暑湿烦渴，身热泄泻",
        "en": "Summerheat-damp with irritable thirst, fever and diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿疹湿疮，痱子瘙痒",
        "en": "Damp rashes, damp sores, and prickly heat with itching"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿温初起，邪在气分",
        "en": "Early-stage damp-warm disease with pathogens in the qi level"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾虚气弱，精滑及热病伤津者忌用。孕妇慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 10,
      "max": 20,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "入汤剂宜包煎。外用适量，研末撒或调敷。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生滑石",
        "method": "生用，研细水飞",
        "effect": "清热利湿、收湿敛疮，内服外用皆宜"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品为含水硅酸镁矿物，不可吸入粉尘。孕妇及脾虚者慎用。现代制剂应注意质量，防止滑石粉污染。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "wen_bing_tiao_bian",
        "passage": "脉洪滑，面赤身热头晕，不恶寒但恶热，舌上黄滑苔，渴欲凉饮，饮不解渴，得水则呕，按之胸下痛，小便短，大便闭者，阳明暑温，水结在胸也，小陷胸汤加枳实主之；热入营中者，加银花滑石之属。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "硅酸盐类矿物滑石族滑石，主含含水硅酸镁。归膀胱、肺、胃经。为治暑湿及热淋之要药，《伤寒论》猪苓汤、《医学心悟》六一散（滑石六、甘草一）皆以之为主。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "hydrated magnesium silicate (talc, Mg3Si4O10(OH)2)",
          "name_zh": "含水硅酸镁（滑石）",
          "category": "mineral silicate"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "trace aluminum, iron, calcium silicates",
          "category": "accessory silicates"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "滑石为天然含水硅酸镁矿物，内服经肠道吸附水分与毒物、外用形成保护膜，药理示其清热利湿、吸附保护与抗菌辅助作用。",
        "en": "Huashi is natural hydrated magnesium silicate (talc); orally it adsorbs fluid and toxins in the gut, topically it forms a protective film. Actions include clearing heat-damp, adsorbent protection and antibacterial support."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "湿热淋证（尿频尿痛）、暑湿泄泻",
          "indication_en": "Damp-heat lin syndrome (dysuria) and summer-damp diarrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "湿疹、痱子外用（滑石粉）",
          "indication_en": "Topical eczema and heat rash (talc powder)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "小儿尿布疹外用",
          "indication_en": "Topical diaper rash in infants",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定滑石不得检出石棉纤维，入煎剂须包煎。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia requires talc to be free of asbestos fibers; decoct in a cloth bag."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "六一散（滑石:甘草=6:1）为清暑利湿经典方。",
          "note_en": "Liu Yi San (talc:gancao = 6:1) is the classical summer-heat damp-resolving formula."
        },
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "外用含石棉的滑石存在致癌风险；药用滑石须严格检测纤维杂质。",
          "note_en": "Asbestos-contaminated talc carries carcinogenic risk; medicinal talc must be tested for fibrous impurities."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "wu_zhu_yu",
    "slug": "wu-zhu-yu",
    "name_zh": "吴茱萸",
    "name_pinyin": "Wú Zhū Yú",
    "name_en": "Evodia Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Evodiae Fructus",
    "category": "温里药",
    "nature": "hot",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "散寒止痛",
        "en": "Dissipate cold and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疏肝下气",
        "en": "Course the Liver and direct qi downward"
      },
      {
        "zh": "降逆止呕",
        "en": "Direct counterflow downward and stop vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "助阳止泻",
        "en": "Assist yang and stop diarrhea"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "厥阴头痛，干呕吐涎沫",
        "en": "Jueyin headache with dry retching and spitting of foamy saliva"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒疝腹痛，痛经",
        "en": "Cold hernia abdominal pain and dysmenorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脘腹胀痛，呕吐吞酸",
        "en": "Epigastric and abdominal distending pain with vomiting and acid regurgitation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾肾阳虚，五更泄泻",
        "en": "Spleen-Kidney yang deficiency with daybreak diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒湿脚气肿痛",
        "en": "Cold-damp beriberi with swelling and pain"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "本品辛热燥烈，有小毒，不宜多服久服。阴虚火旺者忌用。孕妇慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 2,
      "max": 5,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服用量宜小，一般2–5g；外用适量。因有小毒，不宜久服。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生吴茱萸",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "多外用，内服少用，刺激性较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "制吴茱萸",
        "method": "甘草水炮制",
        "effect": "降低毒性与燥烈之性，多用于内服"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品有小毒，内服不宜多量久服，过量可致视力障碍、错觉、毛发脱落及腹痛等反应。阴虚火旺者忌用。孕妇慎用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shang_han_lun",
        "passage": "食谷欲呕者，属阳明也，吴茱萸汤主之。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "芸香科植物吴茱萸、石虎或疏毛吴茱萸将近成熟的干燥果实。归肝、脾、胃、肾经。为治厥阴头痛与肝胃虚寒之要药，《伤寒论》吴茱萸汤为其代表方。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "evodiamine",
          "name_zh": "吴茱萸碱",
          "category": "indoloquinazoline alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "rutaecarpine",
          "name_zh": "吴茱萸次碱",
          "category": "indoloquinazoline alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "evodin",
          "category": "limonoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "limonin",
          "category": "limonoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "吴茱萸主含吴茱萸碱、吴茱萸次碱等吲哚喹唑啉生物碱，具有镇痛、止呕、血管舒张及抗溃疡作用。",
        "en": "Evodia fruit contains indoloquinazoline alkaloids (evodiamine, rutaecarpine) with analgesic, antiemetic, vasorelaxant and anti-ulcer effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "寒凝肝脉之头痛、胃脘冷痛",
          "indication_en": "Cold-stagnation Liver headache and cold epigastric pain",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "厥阴头痛、呕吐涎沫",
          "indication_en": "Jueyin headache with vomiting of clear fluid",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "散寒止痛、疏肝下气、助阳止泻，为吴茱萸汤君药；小毒，不宜过量久服。",
          "note_en": "Disperses cold, moves Liver qi downward, warms yang and stops diarrhea; sovereign herb of Wu Zhu Yu Tang; slightly toxic, should not be overdosed or used long-term."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "高剂量或长期使用有肝毒性报告；吴茱萸碱可影响多种 CYP 酶和 P-糖蛋白。",
          "note_en": "Hepatotoxicity has been reported with high-dose or prolonged use; evodiamine modulates multiple CYP enzymes and P-glycoprotein."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以吴茱萸碱和吴茱萸次碱总量作含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses combined evodiamine plus rutaecarpine as the assay marker."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "rou_gui",
    "slug": "rou-gui",
    "name_zh": "肉桂",
    "name_pinyin": "Ròu Guì",
    "name_en": "Cinnamon Bark",
    "name_latin": "Cinnamomi Cortex",
    "category": "温里药",
    "nature": "hot",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补火助阳",
        "en": "Tonify the fire and assist yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "引火归元",
        "en": "Lead fire back to its source"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散寒止痛",
        "en": "Dissipate cold and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温经通脉",
        "en": "Warm the channels and unblock the vessels"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肾阳不足，命门火衰，畏寒肢冷",
        "en": "Kidney yang deficiency with debilitated Mingmen fire, aversion to cold and cold limbs"
      },
      {
        "zh": "腰膝冷痛，阳痿遗精",
        "en": "Cold painful lower back and knees, impotence and seminal emission"
      },
      {
        "zh": "虚阳上浮之面赤、虚喘、汗出",
        "en": "Upward floating of deficient yang with red face, deficient wheezing and sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脘腹冷痛，寒疝腹痛",
        "en": "Cold epigastric and abdominal pain, cold hernia abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "冲任虚寒之痛经经闭，阴疽漫肿",
        "en": "Chong and Ren deficiency-cold dysmenorrhea and amenorrhea, yin-type sores with diffuse swelling"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚火旺、里有实热、血热妄行者忌用。孕妇慎用。畏赤石脂。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 1,
      "max": 5,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服1–5g，宜后下或焗服；研末冲服每次1–2g。因含挥发油，不宜久煎。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "肉桂",
        "method": "生用，刮去栓皮",
        "effect": "补火助阳、散寒止痛、温通经脉，为温里要药"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品大辛大热，纯阳燥烈，阴虚火旺、里有实热者忌用。孕妇慎用。不宜与赤石脂同用（十九畏）。含挥发油，煎煮宜后下以保药效。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "牡桂，味辛，温。主上气咳逆，结气，喉痹吐吸，利关节，补中益气。久服通神，轻身不老。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "樟科植物肉桂的干燥树皮，与桂枝（同株之嫩枝）来源同而部位、功效有别：桂枝偏表，温经通阳以解肌；肉桂入里，补火助阳以归元。归肾、脾、心、肝经。为温补命门、引火归元之要药，《金匮要略》肾气丸即以其配附子温补肾阳。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "cinnamaldehyde",
          "name_zh": "桂皮醛",
          "category": "aromatic aldehyde (volatile oil)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cinnamic acid",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "coumarin",
          "name_zh": "香豆素",
          "category": "benzopyrone",
          "notes": "present at meaningful levels in Cinnamomum cassia — hepatotoxic at chronic high intake"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "procyanidins",
          "category": "condensed tannin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "肉桂（官桂）富含桂皮醛、桂皮酸、香豆素及原花青素，现代研究显示其具抗菌、抗炎、扩张血管、改善胰岛素敏感性作用；中国药典所用为 Cinnamomum cassia，其香豆素含量较锡兰肉桂高，长期大剂量应关注肝毒风险。",
        "en": "Cinnamomum cassia bark contains cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic acid, coumarin, and procyanidins, with reported antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, vasodilatory, and insulin-sensitizing effects. Cassia (the Pharmacopoeia species) contains meaningfully higher coumarin than Ceylon cinnamon; chronic high-dose use warrants attention to hepatotoxicity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肾阳不足、命门火衰",
          "indication_en": "Kidney-yang deficiency, decline of mingmen fire",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "寒凝血瘀痛经",
          "indication_en": "Cold-stasis dysmenorrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "2 型糖尿病血糖辅助",
          "indication_en": "Type 2 diabetes glycemic adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "中国药典 2020 版收载肉桂为樟科植物肉桂 Cinnamomum cassia 的干燥树皮，规定挥发油含量下限及桂皮醛含量。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia 2020 defines Rou Gui as the dried bark of Cinnamomum cassia, specifying minimum volatile oil and cinnamaldehyde content."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 警示 Cassia 肉桂每克含香豆素数毫克，长期大剂量（尤其糖尿病辅助用法）可能引起肝损伤；建议与华法林合用时监测 INR。",
          "note_en": "Brinker warns that Cassia cinnamon contains several mg/g of coumarin; chronic high-dose use (especially as a diabetes adjunct) can cause hepatotoxicity, and INR should be monitored if combined with warfarin."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述桂皮醛具扩血管、抗凝及抗菌活性，阴虚火旺者与孕妇禁用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize cinnamaldehyde's vasodilatory, antiplatelet, and antimicrobial activities; contraindicated in yin-deficiency heat and pregnancy."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "xiao_hui_xiang",
    "slug": "xiao-hui-xiang",
    "name_zh": "小茴香",
    "name_pinyin": "Xiǎo Huí Xiāng",
    "name_en": "Fennel Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Foeniculi Fructus",
    "category": "温里药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "散寒止痛",
        "en": "Dissipate cold and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "理气和胃",
        "en": "Regulate qi and harmonize the Stomach"
      },
      {
        "zh": "暖肝散寒",
        "en": "Warm the Liver and dissipate cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温肾止痛",
        "en": "Warm the Kidney and alleviate pain"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "寒疝腹痛",
        "en": "Cold hernia with abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "睾丸偏坠疼痛",
        "en": "Testicular swelling with dragging pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "少腹冷痛，痛经",
        "en": "Cold pain in the lower abdomen, dysmenorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脘腹胀痛，食少吐泻",
        "en": "Epigastric and abdominal distending pain, poor appetite with vomiting and diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "中焦虚寒之呕吐食少",
        "en": "Middle-jiao deficiency-cold with vomiting and poor appetite"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚火旺者忌用。本品辛温，实热证者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 6,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–6g；外用适量，研末调敷或炒热布包熨患处。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生小茴香",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "理气和胃，散寒止痛"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐小茴香",
        "method": "盐水炒",
        "effect": "引药入肾，增强温肾散寒止痛之功，多用于寒疝"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "现代研究毒性甚低。注意与大茴香（八角茴香，Illicium verum）区分：大茴香为木兰科八角的干燥果实，香气更烈，亦能温中散寒，但本品（小茴香）为伞形科茴香的干燥果实，作用更偏理气暖肝。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "passage": "治肾经虚寒，小腹疼痛，阴核肿胀，及寒疝偏坠，宜用小茴香、川楝子、木香、吴茱萸等分为末，酒糊为丸。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "伞形科植物茴香的干燥成熟果实。归肝、肾、脾、胃经。与八角茴香（大茴香，木兰科）不同科属，本品体小而气清香，为暖肝散寒、理气止痛之要药，《太平惠民和剂局方》天台乌药散为其代表应用。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "trans-anethole",
          "name_zh": "反式茴香脑",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid",
          "notes": "dominant volatile oil component, carminative and mild estrogenic"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "fenchone",
          "name_zh": "葑酮",
          "category": "monoterpene ketone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "estragole (methyl chavicol)",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "limonene",
          "category": "monoterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "小茴香挥发油以反式茴香脑为主，具有促进胃肠蠕动、解痉、驱风、抗菌及轻度雌激素样作用，契合散寒止痛、理气和胃之功。",
        "en": "Fennel volatile oil, dominated by trans-anethole, exhibits prokinetic, antispasmodic, carminative, antimicrobial and mild estrogenic effects, matching its role in warming the middle and regulating qi."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "寒疝腹痛、胃寒呕吐",
          "indication_en": "Cold hernia pain and stomach-cold vomiting",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "婴幼儿肠绞痛及功能性消化不良",
          "indication_en": "Infantile colic and functional dyspepsia",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 专论收录茴香用于消化不良和婴儿绞痛，临床试验支持其功效。",
          "note_en": "WHO monograph includes fennel for dyspepsia and infantile colic with supportive clinical trial data."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 提示茴香脑具有弱雌激素样作用，孕妇大剂量应慎用。",
          "note_en": "Brinker notes anethole's weak estrogenic activity; large doses during pregnancy warrant caution."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "xiang_fu",
    "slug": "xiang-fu",
    "name_zh": "香附",
    "name_pinyin": "Xiāng Fù",
    "name_en": "Cyperus Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Cyperi Rhizoma",
    "category": "理气药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "slightly_bitter",
      "slightly_sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "疏肝解郁",
        "en": "Course the Liver and relieve constraint"
      },
      {
        "zh": "理气宽中",
        "en": "Regulate qi and relax the middle"
      },
      {
        "zh": "调经止痛",
        "en": "Regulate menstruation and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "行气止痛",
        "en": "Move qi and alleviate pain"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝郁气滞，胁肋胀痛",
        "en": "Liver constraint with qi stagnation, distending pain in the hypochondria"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脘腹胀痛，疝气疼痛",
        "en": "Epigastric and abdominal distending pain, hernia pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "月经不调，经行腹痛",
        "en": "Irregular menstruation with menstrual abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "乳房胀痛",
        "en": "Distending pain of the breasts"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒凝气滞之胃脘冷痛",
        "en": "Cold congealment with qi stagnation, cold epigastric pain"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "气虚无滞、阴虚血热者慎用。月经先期属血热者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–10g。醋炙止痛力增强。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生香附",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "偏于行气解郁，多用于胸胁胀痛"
      },
      {
        "name": "醋香附",
        "method": "醋炙",
        "effect": "引药入肝，增强疏肝止痛之功，为调经止痛常用品"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒香附",
        "method": "酒炙",
        "effect": "通经脉，多用于妇人经闭、瘀滞"
      },
      {
        "name": "香附炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "止血，多用于崩漏下血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "现代研究未见明显毒性。气虚及阴虚血热者不宜单用，宜配伍补益或凉血之品。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "passage": "治一切气疾，心腹胀满，胸膈噎塞，噫气吞酸，胃中痰逆呕吐及宿酒不解，不思饮食，香附子、缩砂仁、甘草为末，名快气汤。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "莎草科植物莎草的干燥根茎。归肝、脾、三焦经。为疏肝理气、调经止痛之要药，李时珍誉为气病之总司，女科之主帅。常与柴胡、川芎等相配以疏肝解郁。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "alpha-cyperone",
          "name_zh": "香附酮",
          "category": "sesquiterpene",
          "notes": "characteristic volatile-oil component with smooth-muscle relaxant and potential estrogenic activity"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cyperotundone",
          "name_zh": "香附子烯酮",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cyperene",
          "name_zh": "香附烯",
          "category": "sesquiterpene hydrocarbon"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "patchoulenone",
          "category": "sesquiterpene ketone"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "香附挥发油富含 α-香附酮等倍半萜类成分，具有解痉、镇痛、轻度雌激素样及抗炎作用，为传统调经止痛的主要活性基础。",
        "en": "Cyperus rhizome volatile oil is rich in sesquiterpenes such as alpha-cyperone, which confer smooth-muscle antispasmodic, analgesic, mild estrogenic and anti-inflammatory activities underlying its classical use for menstrual regulation and pain."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝郁气滞之月经不调、痛经",
          "indication_en": "Menstrual irregularity and dysmenorrhea from liver qi stagnation",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "胁肋脘腹胀痛",
          "indication_en": "Hypochondriac and epigastric distension pain",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "功能性消化不良辅助用药",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for functional dyspepsia",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "香附被称为『气病之总司，女科之主帅』，调理气机为其核心作用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky describes Xiang Fu as chief herb for qi disorders and gynecology, emphasizing its qi-regulating role."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "药理研究提示香附具雌激素样作用，与其治疗妇科气滞证候的经验相符。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note estrogen-like activity in pharmacological studies, consistent with empirical use in qi-stagnation gynecologic patterns."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定以挥发油含量及 α-香附酮为质量控制指标。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses volatile oil content and alpha-cyperone as quality markers."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "mu_xiang",
    "slug": "mu-xiang",
    "name_zh": "木香",
    "name_pinyin": "Mù Xiāng",
    "name_en": "Costus Root",
    "name_latin": "Aucklandiae Radix",
    "category": "理气药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "行气止痛",
        "en": "Move qi and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "健脾消食",
        "en": "Strengthen the Spleen and dissolve food stagnation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疏肝利胆",
        "en": "Course the Liver and benefit the gallbladder"
      },
      {
        "zh": "实肠止泻",
        "en": "Firm the intestines and stop diarrhea"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脘腹胀痛，胁肋胀痛",
        "en": "Epigastric and abdominal distending pain, hypochondriac distending pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "食积不消，不思饮食",
        "en": "Undigested food stagnation with poor appetite"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泻痢后重，里急后重",
        "en": "Diarrhea and dysentery with tenesmus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "黄疸腹痛",
        "en": "Jaundice with abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾胃气滞，嗳气呕吐",
        "en": "Spleen-Stomach qi stagnation with belching and vomiting"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚津亏、脏腑燥热者慎用。气虚血亏无气滞者不宜单用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 6,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–6g；煨用或后下。生用行气力强，煨用止泻力胜。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生木香",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "行气止痛作用强，多用于气滞胀痛"
      },
      {
        "name": "煨木香",
        "method": "煨制（纸煨或麸煨）",
        "effect": "行气力缓，实肠止泻，多用于泄痢后重"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品辛温香燥，阴虚火旺、津液不足者慎用。历史上曾用马兜铃科青木香，因含马兜铃酸有肾毒性，现药典所载木香为菊科云木香，应加以区分。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "passage": "治一切气，心腹刺痛，胸膈痞塞，两胁胀满，木香、槟榔等分为末，名木香槟榔丸。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物木香的干燥根。归脾、胃、大肠、三焦、胆经。为行气止痛之要药，三焦气分之圣药，《太平惠民和剂局方》木香槟榔丸、《局方》香砂六君子汤为其代表应用。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "costunolide",
          "name_zh": "木香内酯",
          "category": "sesquiterpene lactone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "dehydrocostus lactone",
          "name_zh": "去氢木香内酯",
          "category": "sesquiterpene lactone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "volatile oil (aucklandia oil)",
          "category": "essential oil"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "木香（云木香）富含倍半萜内酯及挥发油，现代研究显示其具有促胃肠动力、解痉、抗炎与抑菌作用，呼应传统行气止痛之功。",
        "en": "Aucklandia root is rich in sesquiterpene lactones (notably costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone) and volatile oils, with modern studies indicating prokinetic, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial effects consistent with its traditional qi-moving and pain-relieving use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "功能性消化不良、腹胀腹痛",
          "indication_en": "Functional dyspepsia, bloating and abdominal pain",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "里急后重（痢疾、肠炎辅助）",
          "indication_en": "Tenesmus (adjunct in dysentery/enteritis)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "作为复方中的行气药（如香砂六君子汤）",
          "indication_en": "Qi-regulator in classical compounds (e.g. Xiang Sha Liu Jun Zi Tang)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载木香挥发油对离体肠管低浓度兴奋、高浓度抑制，符合其双向调节气机之效。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that Aucklandia volatile oil stimulates isolated intestinal smooth muscle at low concentration and inhibits it at high concentration, paralleling its bidirectional qi-regulating action."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 指出去氢木香内酯有抗炎及抑菌活性，对多种革兰氏阳性菌有效。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen report that dehydrocostus lactone shows anti-inflammatory activity and inhibits several Gram-positive bacteria."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "wu_yao",
    "slug": "wu-yao",
    "name_zh": "乌药",
    "name_pinyin": "Wū Yào",
    "name_en": "Lindera Root",
    "name_latin": "Linderae Radix",
    "category": "理气药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "行气止痛",
        "en": "Move qi and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温肾散寒",
        "en": "Warm the Kidney and dissipate cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "顺气降逆",
        "en": "Regulate qi and direct counterflow downward"
      },
      {
        "zh": "缩尿止遗",
        "en": "Consolidate urine and stop enuresis"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "寒凝气滞之胸腹胀痛",
        "en": "Cold congealment with qi stagnation, chest and abdominal distending pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "寒疝腹痛",
        "en": "Cold hernia with abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "经行腹痛",
        "en": "Menstrual abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾阳不足，膀胱虚冷，小便频数，遗尿",
        "en": "Kidney yang deficiency with cold deficient Bladder, frequent urination and enuresis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气逆喘急",
        "en": "Qi counterflow with hurried wheezing"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "气虚及内热者慎用。孕妇慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–10g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生乌药",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "行气止痛、温肾散寒，为常用饮片"
      },
      {
        "name": "麸炒乌药",
        "method": "麸炒",
        "effect": "降低燥烈之性，和胃止痛"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品辛温香散，气血虚而无气滞或内热者不宜。孕妇慎用。现代研究毒性较低。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "passage": "治小肠疝气，牵引脐腹疼痛，天台乌药、木香、小茴香（炒）、青皮（去白）、良姜（炒）各半两，槟榔二个，川楝子十个，巴豆七十粒，名天台乌药散。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "樟科植物乌药的干燥块根。归肺、脾、肾、膀胱经。为行气散寒止痛之良药，兼温肾缩尿，《太平惠民和剂局方》天台乌药散及缩泉丸为其代表应用。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "linderane",
          "name_zh": "乌药烷",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "linderalactone",
          "category": "sesquiterpene lactone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "isolinderalactone",
          "category": "sesquiterpene lactone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "linderene",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "乌药主含倍半萜类成分（乌药烷、乌药内酯），具有行气止痛、温肾散寒及抗炎、解痉作用。",
        "en": "Lindera root contains sesquiterpenes (linderanes and linderalactones) with qi-moving analgesic, kidney-warming, anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "寒凝气滞之胸腹胁肋胀痛",
          "indication_en": "Cold-stagnation qi-bound pain in chest, abdomen and flanks",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肾阳虚之遗尿、小便频数",
          "indication_en": "Kidney-yang deficient enuresis and urinary frequency",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "行气止痛、温肾散寒，常用于寒凝气滞诸痛及肾虚尿频。",
          "note_en": "Moves qi to relieve pain and warms the Kidney to disperse cold; commonly used for cold-stagnation pain and Kidney-deficient urinary frequency."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "挥发油成分为其解痉及胃肠调节作用的主要活性来源。",
          "note_en": "Its essential oil sesquiterpenes are considered the main active components for antispasmodic and GI-regulating effects."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "chen_xiang",
    "slug": "chen-xiang",
    "name_zh": "沉香",
    "name_pinyin": "Chén Xiāng",
    "name_en": "Aquilaria Wood",
    "name_latin": "Aquilariae Lignum Resinatum",
    "category": "理气药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "行气止痛",
        "en": "Move qi and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温中止呕",
        "en": "Warm the middle and stop vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "纳气平喘",
        "en": "Grasp qi and calm wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "降逆调中",
        "en": "Direct counterflow downward and regulate the middle"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "胸腹胀闷疼痛",
        "en": "Chest and abdominal distention with oppressive pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胃寒呕吐呃逆",
        "en": "Cold Stomach with vomiting and hiccup"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾虚气逆作喘",
        "en": "Kidney deficiency with qi counterflow wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "腰膝虚冷",
        "en": "Deficiency-cold of the lower back and knees"
      },
      {
        "zh": "大肠虚秘",
        "en": "Large Intestine deficiency constipation"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚火旺、气虚下陷者慎用。孕妇慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 1,
      "max": 5,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服1–5g，宜后下；入丸散每次0.5–1g，多作冲服或磨汁服。因含挥发油，不宜久煎。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "沉香",
        "method": "生用，锯段或刨片",
        "effect": "行气止痛、纳气平喘、温中止呕"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品为瑞香科植物白木香（国产沉香）或沉香（进口）含树脂的木材，真伪优劣差异极大：国产白木香 Aquilaria sinensis 为药典所载正品，进口沉香多来自 A. agallocha 及 A. malaccensis，因野生资源稀少，市场伪品、次品繁多，入药须鉴别。阴虚火旺者不宜。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "passage": "治一切冷气，攻冲心腹刺痛，及虚寒喘急，用沉香、木香、乌药等分，磨汁温服，名四磨汤。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "瑞香科植物白木香（国产沉香）含树脂的木材。归脾、胃、肾经。为沉降之品，行气而不伤正，温中而不燥烈，既能行气止痛，又能温肾纳气平喘，《太平惠民和剂局方》四磨汤、《济生方》沉香降气散为其代表应用。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "agarospirol and related sesquiterpenes",
          "name_zh": "沉香螺旋醇",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "2-(2-phenylethyl)chromones",
          "name_zh": "2-(2-苯乙基)色酮类",
          "category": "chromone",
          "notes": "chemical markers of resin-infused agarwood"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "essential oil",
          "name_zh": "沉香挥发油",
          "category": "volatile oil"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "沉香含沉香螺旋醇等倍半萜、2-(2-苯乙基)色酮及挥发油，具有降气温中、镇静催眠、抗炎及促胃肠动力作用。",
        "en": "Aquilariae Lignum Resinatum contains agarospirol and related sesquiterpenes, 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromones, and volatile oil, with qi-descending, sedative/hypnotic, anti-inflammatory, and prokinetic activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "胸腹气滞胀痛、呕吐呃逆",
          "indication_en": "Qi stagnation chest/abdominal distension, vomiting, and hiccup",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肾虚气逆之虚喘",
          "indication_en": "Deficient wheeze from kidney failing to grasp qi",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出沉香入煎剂应后下或研末冲服，以免有效挥发成分损失。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that Chen Xiang should be added late or taken as a powder to preserve volatile constituents."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学记载沉香提取物在动物实验中具有镇静、抗哮喘及抗抑郁活性。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen report sedative, antiasthmatic, and antidepressant activity of agarwood extracts in animal studies."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "qing_pi",
    "slug": "qing-pi",
    "name_zh": "青皮",
    "name_pinyin": "Qīng Pí",
    "name_en": "Green Tangerine Peel",
    "name_latin": "Citri Reticulatae Viride Pericarpium",
    "category": "理气药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "疏肝破气",
        "en": "Course the Liver and break up qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消积化滞",
        "en": "Dissolve accumulation and reduce stagnation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散结止痛",
        "en": "Dissipate nodules and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疏肝止痛",
        "en": "Course the Liver and alleviate pain"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝郁气滞，胁肋胀痛",
        "en": "Liver constraint with qi stagnation, distending pain in the hypochondria"
      },
      {
        "zh": "乳房胀痛或结块",
        "en": "Distending pain or nodules of the breasts"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疝气疼痛",
        "en": "Hernia pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "食积气滞，脘腹胀痛",
        "en": "Food accumulation with qi stagnation, epigastric and abdominal distending pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "癥瘕积聚，久疟痞块",
        "en": "Abdominal masses and accumulations, lingering malaria with masses"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "气虚者慎用。阴虚火旺、无气滞者不宜。汗多者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g。醋炙止痛力增强，多用于肝郁胁痛。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生青皮",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "破气消积之力强"
      },
      {
        "name": "醋青皮",
        "method": "醋炙",
        "effect": "引药入肝，增强疏肝止痛之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品性较峻烈，有破气耗气之虞，气虚及汗多者慎用。与陈皮同出一物，陈皮为成熟果皮，理气健脾缓和；青皮为幼果或未成熟果皮，破气散结峻烈，临证应区别使用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "yi_fang_ji_jie",
        "passage": "青皮大能发汗，有汗及气虚人不可用。陈皮浮而升入脾、肺治高；青皮沉而降入肝、胆治低。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "芸香科植物橘及其栽培变种的干燥幼果或未成熟果实的果皮。归肝、胆、胃经。较陈皮（成熟果皮）峻烈，陈皮偏升而理脾肺，青皮偏降而破肝胆，为疏肝破气、消积化滞之要药。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "synephrine",
          "name_zh": "辛弗林",
          "category": "protoalkaloid (phenethylamine)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "hesperidin",
          "category": "flavanone glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "limonene and volatile oil",
          "category": "monoterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "青皮为未成熟橘的果皮，含辛弗林、橙皮苷及挥发油，现代研究显示促胃肠动力、利胆与升压作用，与传统疏肝破气、消积化滞之功相符。",
        "en": "Unripe tangerine peel contains synephrine, hesperidin, and limonene-rich volatile oil, with reported prokinetic, choleretic, and pressor effects that parallel its traditional liver-soothing and qi-breaking use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝气郁结、胁肋胀痛",
          "indication_en": "Liver qi stagnation with hypochondriac distention and pain",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "食积腹胀、胃脘胀痛",
          "indication_en": "Food stagnation with epigastric distention",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 强调青皮破气力强，气虚者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky cautions that Qing Pi strongly breaks qi and should be used carefully in qi-deficient patients."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 记载辛弗林对心血管具轻度兴奋作用，使用含青皮制剂应关注高血压患者。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that synephrine has mild cardiovascular stimulant activity; hypertensive patients should be monitored when using Qing Pi preparations."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "shan_zha",
    "slug": "shan-zha",
    "name_zh": "山楂",
    "name_pinyin": "Shān Zhā",
    "name_en": "Hawthorn Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Crataegi Fructus",
    "category": "消食药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sour",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "消食健胃",
        "en": "Reduce food stagnation and fortify the Stomach"
      },
      {
        "zh": "行气散瘀",
        "en": "Move qi and disperse blood stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化浊降脂",
        "en": "Transform turbidity and reduce lipids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止泻止痢",
        "en": "Arrest diarrhea and dysentery (charred preparation)"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肉食积滞，脘腹胀满"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泻痢腹痛，食积腹泻"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘀血经闭，产后瘀阻腹痛"
      },
      {
        "zh": "心腹刺痛，疝气疼痛"
      },
      {
        "zh": "高脂血症，胸痹心痛"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚弱而无积滞者、胃酸过多者慎服。孕妇慎用（其行气散瘀之力可能动胎）。不宜空腹及长期大量服用，以免损伤胃气、蚀齿。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "消食导滞常用9–12g；活血化瘀、降脂可用至15–30g；小儿减量。生用活血化瘀，炒用消食化积，焦用止泻止痢。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生山楂",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于活血化瘀，消食化浊降脂，多用于瘀血经闭、高脂血症、胸痹"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒山楂",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "酸味减弱，长于消食化积，多用于肉食积滞、脘腹胀满"
      },
      {
        "name": "焦山楂",
        "method": "炒焦",
        "effect": "长于消食止泻止痢，多用于食积泄泻、痢疾"
      },
      {
        "name": "山楂炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "收涩止血止泻，多用于便血、久泻久痢"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含枸橼酸、山楂酸等有机酸，空腹或过量服用可刺激胃黏膜，胃酸过多、胃溃疡者忌空腹服。孕妇慎用。未成熟果实含较多鞣酸与果胶，易与胃酸结合形成胃石。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "",
        "passage": "《神农本草经》未载山楂专条，后世本草及《本草纲目》集解引前贤论其消肉食积滞、化瘀血之功。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蔷薇科植物山里红或山楂的干燥成熟果实。归脾、胃、肝经。为消食要药，尤善消肉食油腻之积，兼能活血化瘀，现代广泛用于高脂血症、冠心病。炮制不同功效有别：生用活血，炒用消食，焦用止泻。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "oligomeric procyanidins (OPCs)",
          "name_zh": "低聚原花青素",
          "category": "condensed tannin",
          "notes": "major cardiovascular-active fraction in hawthorn"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "vitexin-2″-O-rhamnoside",
          "category": "flavonoid C-glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "hyperoside",
          "category": "flavonol glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "organic acids (citric, chlorogenic)",
          "category": "organic acid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "山楂（Crataegus）富含低聚原花青素及黄酮类化合物，是西方植物药中具 RCT 证据的心力衰竭辅助药物；同时富含有机酸与消化酶促进因子，对应中医消食化积之功。",
        "en": "Hawthorn (Crataegus) is rich in oligomeric procyanidins and flavonoids (vitexin-rhamnoside, hyperoside) and is one of the few Western botanicals with RCT-level evidence as an adjunct in chronic heart failure; its organic acid and digestive-enzyme-promoting profile also supports the TCM claim of resolving food stagnation."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "NYHA II–III 级慢性心力衰竭辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for NYHA class II–III chronic heart failure",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "食积不化、肉食积滞",
          "indication_en": "Food stagnation, especially from fatty/meat foods",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "高脂血症、动脉粥样硬化辅助",
          "indication_en": "Hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 专著收录 Folium cum Flore Crataegi，支持其用于早期心功能不全（NYHA I–II）的辅助治疗。",
          "note_en": "WHO monograph on Folium cum Flore Crataegi supports its use as an adjunct in early cardiac insufficiency (NYHA I–II)."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 指出山楂可能增强地高辛及其他心血管药效应，理论上存在药物相互作用，应医护监护下使用。",
          "note_en": "Brinker notes that hawthorn may potentiate digoxin and other cardiovascular medications; theoretical interactions warrant medical supervision."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述焦山楂更擅消食止泻，生山楂偏活血化瘀降脂。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that charred Shan Zha is preferred for food stagnation/diarrhea while raw Shan Zha emphasizes blood-moving and lipid-lowering effects."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "mai_ya",
    "slug": "mai-ya",
    "name_zh": "麦芽",
    "name_pinyin": "Mài Yá",
    "name_en": "Barley Sprout",
    "name_latin": "Hordei Fructus Germinatus",
    "category": "消食药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "消食和中",
        "en": "Reduce food stagnation and harmonize the middle"
      },
      {
        "zh": "回乳消胀",
        "en": "Suppress lactation and relieve breast distension"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疏肝解郁",
        "en": "Course the Liver and resolve constraint"
      },
      {
        "zh": "健脾开胃",
        "en": "Fortify the Spleen and open the appetite"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "米面薯芋食滞，脘腹胀满"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾虚食少，食欲不振"
      },
      {
        "zh": "妇女断乳，乳汁郁积，乳房胀痛"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝郁胁痛，肝胃不和"
      },
      {
        "zh": "小儿伤乳食积"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "哺乳期妇女不宜服用（大量服用可回乳）。无积滞、脾胃虚弱而非因食停者慎用。《药品化义》言其能消肾，久服损肾。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 10,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "消食健胃常用10–15g；回乳或治疗乳汁郁积宜大剂量30–60g。生用偏于疏肝消胀，炒用偏于消食和中，焦麦芽偏于消食止泻。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生麦芽",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于健脾和胃、疏肝行气，多用于肝郁胁痛、肝胃不和"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒麦芽",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "性偏温，长于消食化滞、回乳消胀，多用于米面食积、断乳"
      },
      {
        "name": "焦麦芽",
        "method": "炒焦",
        "effect": "长于消食止泻，多用于食积不化、脘腹胀痛、泄泻"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "哺乳期妇女服用大剂量（60g以上）可回乳，需授乳者禁用。孕妇慎用。含淀粉酶，高温久煎可降低其消食之效，宜后下或不宜久煎。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "",
        "passage": "《神农本草经》未载，后世《名医别录》《本草纲目·谷部》载麦蘖，言其消食和中、下气、开胃健脾。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "禾本科植物大麦的成熟果实经发芽干燥而成。归脾、胃、肝经。为消米面食积之要药，生用疏肝，炒用消食回乳，临床常与山楂、神曲相须为用（焦三仙）。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "α- and β-amylase",
          "name_zh": "α-与 β-淀粉酶",
          "category": "digestive enzyme",
          "notes": "principal active principle"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "maltose",
          "name_zh": "麦芽糖",
          "category": "disaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "hordenine",
          "name_zh": "大麦芽碱",
          "category": "phenethylamine alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "B-complex vitamins",
          "name_zh": "B 族维生素",
          "category": "vitamin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "麦芽含淀粉酶、麦芽糖及大麦芽碱，具助消化、回乳及调节胃肠动力作用。",
        "en": "Germinated barley contains amylases, maltose, and hordenine with digestive-enzyme, lactation-suppressing, and prokinetic activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "食积不化与消化不良",
          "indication_en": "Food stagnation and indigestion",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "断乳回乳（大剂量）",
          "indication_en": "Weaning/lactation suppression (high dose)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "麦芽消食健胃，尤善消米面薯芋之积；生用回乳，炒用消食。",
          "note_en": "Reduces food stagnation, especially from grains and tubers; raw for lactation suppression, dry-fried for digestion."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "生麦芽含活性淀粉酶，炒后酶活下降但消食作用保留；临床大剂量可降低泌乳素。",
          "note_en": "Raw malt contains active amylase; frying reduces enzyme activity but preserves digestive action; high doses clinically lower prolactin."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以性状及淀粉酶活力为质量控制指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses macroscopic identification and amylase activity as quality controls."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "lai_fu_zi",
    "slug": "lai-fu-zi",
    "name_zh": "莱菔子",
    "name_pinyin": "Lái Fú Zǐ",
    "name_en": "Radish Seed",
    "name_latin": "Raphani Semen",
    "category": "消食药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "消食除胀",
        "en": "Reduce food stagnation and dispel distension"
      },
      {
        "zh": "降气化痰",
        "en": "Direct qi downward and transform phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "行气宽中",
        "en": "Move qi and loosen the middle"
      },
      {
        "zh": "平喘止咳",
        "en": "Calm wheezing and stop cough"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "饮食停滞，脘腹胀满疼痛"
      },
      {
        "zh": "嗳气吞酸，腹胀便秘"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰壅气逆，咳嗽痰多"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气喘胸闷，老年痰喘"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气滞泄泻或下痢后重"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "气虚无食积、痰滞者慎用。不宜与人参同用，恐减人参补气之力（相恶）。脾胃虚弱而无积滞者忌服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "消食除胀常用5–12g；降气化痰定喘可用至15g。生用长于涌吐风痰，炒用长于消食下气化痰，入汤剂宜打碎。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生莱菔子",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于涌吐风痰，多用于痰涎壅盛、喉痹、食积气滞之重证"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒莱菔子",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "药性缓和，长于消食除胀、降气化痰，多用于食积气滞、痰喘咳嗽"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "气虚者不宜单用或久用，以免耗气。不宜与人参同用。现代研究提示其有降压作用，低血压者慎服。种子需打碎入煎。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "",
        "passage": "《本草纲目》载：莱菔子之功，长于利气。生能升，熟能降。升则吐风痰、散风寒、发疮疹；降则定痰喘咳嗽、调下痢后重、止内痛。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "十字花科植物萝卜的干燥成熟种子。归脾、胃、肺经。为消食除胀、降气化痰之要药，代表方如保和丸、三子养亲汤，三子养亲汤中与紫苏子、白芥子同用治老年痰喘。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "sinapine",
          "name_zh": "芥子碱",
          "category": "alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "erucic acid and fixed oil",
          "name_zh": "芥酸与脂肪油",
          "category": "fatty acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "raphanin (sulforaphene)",
          "name_zh": "莱菔素",
          "category": "isothiocyanate",
          "notes": "antimicrobial sulfur compound"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "flavonoids",
          "name_zh": "黄酮类",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "莱菔子含芥子碱、脂肪油及莱菔素，具促进胃肠动力、祛痰、降压及抗菌作用。",
        "en": "Raphanus seed contains sinapine, fixed oil, and raphanin with prokinetic, expectorant, antihypertensive, and antimicrobial effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "食积气滞腹胀",
          "indication_en": "Food stagnation with qi-stagnation abdominal distension",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "痰多咳喘",
          "indication_en": "Copious phlegm with cough and wheeze",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "莱菔子促进胃肠蠕动、镇咳祛痰；莱菔素对革兰阳性菌及真菌有抑制作用。",
          "note_en": "Raphanus seed enhances GI motility and is antitussive/expectorant; raphanin inhibits Gram-positive bacteria and fungi."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "莱菔子消食除胀、降气化痰，与人参相畏，不宜同用。",
          "note_en": "Reduces food accumulation and distension and descends qi to transform phlegm; traditionally antagonistic to ginseng."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以芥子碱硫氰酸盐含量（不少于 0.40%）为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies sinapine thiocyanate (≥0.40%) as the quality marker."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "bing_lang",
    "slug": "bing-lang",
    "name_zh": "槟榔",
    "name_pinyin": "Bīng Láng",
    "name_en": "Areca Seed",
    "name_latin": "Arecae Semen",
    "category": "驱虫药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "驱虫消积",
        "en": "Expel parasites and reduce accumulation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "行气利水",
        "en": "Move qi and promote urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "截疟",
        "en": "Interrupt malarial disorders"
      },
      {
        "zh": "降气导滞",
        "en": "Direct qi downward and free stagnation"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "绦虫、蛔虫、蛲虫、姜片虫等多种肠道寄生虫病"
      },
      {
        "zh": "食积气滞，泻痢后重"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脘腹胀痛，大便不爽"
      },
      {
        "zh": "水肿脚气"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疟疾寒热"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾虚便溏、气虚下陷者忌服。孕妇慎用。不宜与人参、麦冬等补气养阴药同用时过量。古有“槟榔耗气”之说，长期大量服用有损正气。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "常规消积行气3–10g；驱绦虫、姜片虫需大剂量30–60g，清晨空腹煎服，配伍南瓜子。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生槟榔",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "力猛，长于驱虫、消积、截疟，多用于绦虫、食积气滞重证"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒槟榔",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "药性缓和，减其辛烈之性，多用于脾胃虚弱而需行气消积者"
      },
      {
        "name": "焦槟榔",
        "method": "炒焦",
        "effect": "长于消食导滞，多用于食积不化、泻痢后重"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含槟榔碱有拟副交感神经作用，过量可致流涎、呕吐、心悸、腹痛、瞳孔缩小。现代研究证实槟榔果有致癌性（口腔癌），但药用槟榔煎剂经过炮制及煎煮，其安全性与长期咀嚼生果不同，仍应限量使用、不宜长服。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "",
        "passage": "《名医别录》载其主消谷逐水，除痰澼，杀三虫，去伏尸，治寸白。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "棕榈科植物槟榔的干燥成熟种子。归胃、大肠经。为驱虫要药，尤擅驱绦虫，与南瓜子配伍力尤宏。同时行气利水、消积截疟，古方达原饮、木香槟榔丸皆以之为主药。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "arecoline",
          "name_zh": "槟榔碱",
          "category": "pyridine alkaloid",
          "notes": "principal active and toxic constituent, a muscarinic agonist"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "arecaidine",
          "name_zh": "槟榔次碱",
          "category": "alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "tannins (condensed)",
          "name_zh": "缩合鞣质",
          "category": "polyphenol"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "槟榔的主要活性成分为槟榔碱（一种毒蕈碱受体激动剂），具有驱虫（尤其绦虫及姜片虫）、增强胃肠蠕动及缩瞳作用；长期嚼食与口腔黏膜病变及口腔癌相关。",
        "en": "Arecae Semen contains arecoline, a muscarinic agonist, with taenicidal (especially for tapeworm and Fasciolopsis), prokinetic, and miotic effects; long-term betel chewing is linked to oral submucous fibrosis and oral cancer."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "绦虫病、姜片虫病",
          "indication_en": "Taeniasis and fasciolopsiasis",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "食积气滞腹胀",
          "indication_en": "Food stagnation with qi stagnation abdominal distension",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载槟榔配伍南瓜子治疗绦虫病的方案在中国临床长期使用，驱虫率较高。",
          "note_en": "Bensky documents the Bing Lang–pumpkin seed combination as a long-standing and effective Chinese clinical protocol for tapeworm expulsion."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学提到槟榔碱过量可致流涎、恶心、心动过缓及呼吸困难，儿童、孕妇及消化道溃疡者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that arecoline overdose can cause salivation, nausea, bradycardia, and dyspnea; contraindicated in children, pregnancy, and GI ulcer disease."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 指出嚼食槟榔为 IARC 认定的人类一级致癌物，与口腔黏膜下纤维化及口腔癌相关。",
          "note_en": "Brinker notes that betel-quid chewing is classified by IARC as a Group 1 human carcinogen, causally linked to oral submucous fibrosis and oral cancer."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "shi_jun_zi",
    "slug": "shi-jun-zi",
    "name_zh": "使君子",
    "name_pinyin": "Shǐ Jūn Zǐ",
    "name_en": "Rangoon Creeper Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Quisqualis Fructus",
    "category": "驱虫药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "杀虫消积",
        "en": "Kill parasites and reduce accumulation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "健脾开胃",
        "en": "Fortify the Spleen and open the appetite"
      },
      {
        "zh": "驱蛔止痛",
        "en": "Expel roundworms and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消疳化积",
        "en": "Dissipate childhood nutritional impairment"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "蛔虫腹痛，面黄肌瘦"
      },
      {
        "zh": "蛲虫病，肛门瘙痒"
      },
      {
        "zh": "小儿疳积，腹胀食少"
      },
      {
        "zh": "虫积腹痛，夜啼磨牙"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾虚食积，泻痢"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "不宜与热茶同服，服用后饮茶易致呃逆、眩晕、呕吐、腹泻等反应。大量服用可致呃逆、呕吐、眩晕。脾胃虚寒甚者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "成人一次用量9–12g，打碎入煎；炒香嚼服每次3–5g，一日3次。小儿按年龄每岁1.0–1.5粒，每日总量不超过20粒。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生使君子",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "力专，但易致呃逆、恶心，多入汤剂打碎先煎"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒使君子",
        "method": "炒香",
        "effect": "香气增加，便于嚼服，减其副作用，多用于小儿驱虫及疳积"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "主要成分为使君子氨酸钾，过量服用（超过20粒/日）可致呃逆、眩晕、呕吐、腹泻，严重者呼吸困难。切忌与热茶同服，易引发不良反应。小儿慎用，按体重/年龄严格计量。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "classification": "",
        "passage": "《开宝本草》载：主小儿五疳，小便白浊，杀虫，疗泻痢。《太平惠民和剂局方》以之为君药制使君子丸治小儿诸疳诸虫。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "使君子科植物使君子的干燥成熟果实。归脾、胃经。为驱蛔要药，尤宜小儿蛔虫病及疳积，味甘气香，小儿乐服，嚼服即效，故历代儿科方中多用之。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "quisqualic acid",
          "name_zh": "使君子氨酸",
          "category": "non-protein amino acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "trigonelline",
          "category": "alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "fatty oil (oleic, palmitic)",
          "category": "fixed oil"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "potassium quisqualate",
          "category": "amino acid salt"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "使君子主含使君子氨酸及其钾盐，具有驱蛔虫、驱蛲虫作用。",
        "en": "Quisqualis fruit contains quisqualic acid and its potassium salt, acting as an ascaricidal and anthelmintic agent."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "小儿蛔虫病、蛲虫病",
          "indication_en": "Ascariasis and enterobiasis in children",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "小儿疳积腹胀",
          "indication_en": "Childhood nutritional impairment with abdominal distention",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "杀虫消积，主治蛔虫腹痛及小儿疳积，过量或与热茶同服易致呃逆。",
          "note_en": "Kills parasites and reduces food stagnation; overdose or combination with hot tea often causes hiccups."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "使君子氨酸为已知AMPA受体激动剂，是神经药理学重要工具化合物。",
          "note_en": "Quisqualic acid is a well-characterized AMPA receptor agonist used as a neuropharmacology tool compound."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "san_qi",
    "slug": "san-qi",
    "name_zh": "三七",
    "name_pinyin": "Sān Qī",
    "name_en": "Notoginseng Root",
    "name_latin": "Notoginseng Radix et Rhizoma",
    "category": "止血药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "散瘀止血",
        "en": "Disperse stasis and stop bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消肿定痛",
        "en": "Reduce swelling and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "活血化瘀",
        "en": "Invigorate blood and transform stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "补血强心",
        "en": "Tonify blood and strengthen the Heart (when steamed)"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "咯血、吐血、衄血、便血、崩漏"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外伤出血，跌打损伤"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胸痹心痛，血瘀心痛"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘀血肿痛，痈肿疼痛"
      },
      {
        "zh": "产后血晕，恶露不尽"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇慎用。血虚无瘀者不宜。出血证属阴虚火旺者应配伍凉血药。不宜与抗凝血药（如华法林、阿司匹林）同用，有增加出血风险。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 1,
      "max": 3,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "研末吞服或冲服，每次1–3g，每日2–3次。入汤剂3–9g；外用适量，研末外敷。为粉末入药效佳，所谓“生打熟补”。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生三七",
        "method": "生用研粉",
        "effect": "长于散瘀止血、消肿定痛，多用于出血证、跌打损伤、瘀血证"
      },
      {
        "name": "熟三七",
        "method": "蒸熟或油炸",
        "effect": "长于补血强身，多用于气血虚弱、病后体虚、产后调理"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "过量或长期服用可引起口干、烦躁、恶心、出血倾向增加。三七含人参皂苷，与抗凝药合用需谨慎。孕妇慎用，手术前一周宜停服。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "bin_hu_mai_xue",
        "classification": "",
        "passage": "《本草纲目》载：此药近时始出，南人军中用为金疮要药，云有奇功……凡杖扑伤损，瘀血淋漓者，随即嚼烂罨之即止；青肿者即消散。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "五加科植物三七的干燥根及根茎。归肝、胃经。为止血化瘀、消肿止痛之要药，止血而不留瘀，化瘀而不伤正，有“止血之神品”“金不换”之誉。生打熟补：生用散瘀止血，熟用补血强身。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "notoginsenoside R1",
          "name_zh": "三七皂苷 R1",
          "category": "dammarane saponin (unique to P. notoginseng)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ginsenoside Rg1",
          "category": "protopanaxatriol saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ginsenoside Rb1",
          "category": "protopanaxadiol saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "dencichine",
          "name_zh": "田七氨酸",
          "category": "non-protein amino acid",
          "notes": "proposed mediator of hemostatic action"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "三七（Panax notoginseng）含人参皂苷 Rg1/Rb1、三七皂苷 R1 及田七氨酸，兼具止血与化瘀的'双向'药理：生品富含田七氨酸缩短出血时间，同时总皂苷具抗血小板和扩张冠脉作用，对应'止血不留瘀'之传统论述。",
        "en": "Panax notoginseng contains ginsenosides Rg1/Rb1, notoginsenoside R1, and dencichine. It displays a dual hemostatic–antiplatelet pharmacology: raw powder rich in dencichine shortens bleeding time while total saponins are antiplatelet and coronary-vasodilatory, paralleling the classical claim of 'stopping bleeding without causing stasis'."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "内外出血、创伤出血（生粉冲服）",
          "indication_en": "Internal and traumatic bleeding (raw powder)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "冠心病心绞痛（三七总皂苷制剂）",
          "indication_en": "Coronary heart disease and angina (total notoginseng saponins preparations)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "缺血性脑卒中辅助（注射用血塞通/血栓通）",
          "indication_en": "Ischemic stroke adjunct (Xuesaitong/Xueshuantong injections)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "中国药典 2020 版收载三七，规定人参皂苷 Rb1、Rg1 及三七皂苷 R1 的总含量不低于 5.0%。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia 2020 specifies that Sanqi must contain no less than 5.0% total ginsenoside Rb1 + Rg1 + notoginsenoside R1."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 提示三七可增强抗血小板与抗凝药效应，与阿司匹林、华法林合用应监测出血风险。",
          "note_en": "Brinker notes that notoginseng may potentiate antiplatelet and anticoagulant drugs; bleeding risk should be monitored when combined with aspirin or warfarin."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述田七氨酸促进血小板释放并缩短出血时间，而三七总皂苷抑制血小板聚集，从而实现双向调节。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize that dencichine promotes platelet release and shortens bleeding time whereas total notoginseng saponins inhibit platelet aggregation, accounting for the bidirectional profile."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "pu_huang",
    "slug": "pu-huang",
    "name_zh": "蒲黄",
    "name_pinyin": "Pú Huáng",
    "name_en": "Cattail Pollen",
    "name_latin": "Typhae Pollen",
    "category": "止血药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "止血",
        "en": "Stop bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化瘀",
        "en": "Transform blood stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利尿通淋",
        "en": "Promote urination and free strangury"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消肿止痛",
        "en": "Reduce swelling and alleviate pain"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "吐血、衄血、咯血、便血、崩漏"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外伤出血"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘀血经闭，痛经，产后瘀痛"
      },
      {
        "zh": "心腹瘀痛，胸痹心痛"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血淋涩痛，小便不利"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇忌服（其活血之力易动胎）。无瘀血者及阴虚血热者不宜。入汤剂宜包煎，以免刺激咽喉、混汤。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服5–10g，包煎；外用适量，研末外敷。生用活血化瘀、利尿通淋；炒用收敛止血；炒炭偏于止血。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生蒲黄",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于活血化瘀、利尿通淋，多用于瘀血痛证、血淋涩痛"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒蒲黄",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "长于收敛止血而兼行血，多用于各种出血证而有瘀者"
      },
      {
        "name": "蒲黄炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "性涩，专于止血，用于血热妄行之诸出血证"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "孕妇禁用。入煎剂宜用纱布包煎。部分人对蒲黄花粉可能过敏。与活血化瘀或抗凝药合用时应注意出血风险。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主心腹膀胱寒热，利小便，止血，消瘀血。久服轻身益气力，延年神仙。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "香蒲科植物水烛香蒲、东方香蒲或同属植物的干燥花粉。归肝、心包经。止血化瘀两擅其长，与五灵脂相配为失笑散，治瘀血诸痛之要方。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "typhaneoside",
          "name_zh": "香蒲新苷",
          "category": "flavonoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "isorhamnetin-3-O-neohesperidoside",
          "category": "flavonoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "sitosterol and fatty acids",
          "category": "pollen lipids"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "蒲黄为香蒲花粉，主含黄酮类及甾醇脂质，现代研究显示其有缩短凝血时间、抗血小板（炒炭生用双向）与降血脂作用，与传统化瘀止血之功相合。",
        "en": "Typha pollen contains flavonoid glycosides (typhaneoside) and lipidic sterols; preclinical studies report hemostatic effects when charred and antiplatelet/lipid-lowering effects when raw, reflecting its dual traditional role of stopping bleeding and resolving blood stasis."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "月经过多、崩漏（炒用）",
          "indication_en": "Menorrhagia and uterine bleeding (charred form)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "瘀血痛经、产后瘀阻（生用）",
          "indication_en": "Blood-stasis dysmenorrhea and postpartum stasis (raw form)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "高脂血症辅助",
          "indication_en": "Hyperlipidemia adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载蒲黄生用活血、炒炭止血，孕妇禁用；入煎宜包煎。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes raw Typha invigorates blood while charred Typha stops bleeding; contraindicated in pregnancy and typically wrapped for decoction."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述蒲黄黄酮具抗血栓与降血脂活性。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize antithrombotic and lipid-lowering activities of Typha flavonoids."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "ai_ye",
    "slug": "ai-ye",
    "name_zh": "艾叶",
    "name_pinyin": "Ài Yè",
    "name_en": "Mugwort Leaf",
    "name_latin": "Artemisiae Argyi Folium",
    "category": "止血药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "温经止血",
        "en": "Warm the channels and stop bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散寒调经",
        "en": "Dispel cold and regulate menstruation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "安胎",
        "en": "Calm the fetus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "除湿止痒",
        "en": "Dispel dampness and relieve itching (external use)"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "虚寒性出血，崩漏下血"
      },
      {
        "zh": "月经不调，经寒痛经"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宫冷不孕，少腹冷痛"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胎动不安，妊娠下血"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿疹瘙痒，疥癣（外用煎汤熏洗）"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚血热者慎用。孕妇慎用，但胎动不安、妊娠下血属虚寒者为正治（如胶艾汤）。外敷可引起接触性皮炎。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服3–9g；外用适量，供灸治或熏洗用。生用温经散寒，炒炭止血，醋艾炭温经止血之力增强。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生艾叶",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于温经散寒、调经安胎，多用于虚寒痛经、胎动不安、宫冷不孕"
      },
      {
        "name": "艾叶炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "辛散之性减，专于温经止血，多用于虚寒性崩漏下血、吐衄便血"
      },
      {
        "name": "醋艾炭",
        "method": "醋炙炒炭",
        "effect": "温经止血之力益增，多用于崩漏"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "内服过量或长期服用可引起肝损伤、神经毒性（含侧柏酮）。外用可能引起接触性皮炎。艾灸烟雾对呼吸道敏感者刺激，室内灸治需通风。阴虚火旺者禁服。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "jin_gui_yao_lue",
        "classification": "",
        "passage": "《金匮要略》胶艾汤：阿胶、艾叶、当归、芎䓖、芍药、甘草、干地黄，治妇人有漏下者，有半产后因续下血都不绝者，有妊娠下血者，假令妊娠腹中痛，为胞阻。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物艾的干燥叶。归肝、脾、肾经。为温经止血、安胎要药，又为艾灸之主材（陈艾）。生用散寒调经安胎，炒炭温经止血，与阿胶同用之胶艾汤为治妊娠下血之经典方。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "essential oil (cineole, α-thujone, borneol)",
          "name_zh": "挥发油",
          "category": "volatile oil",
          "notes": "main aromatic and hemostatic fraction"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "flavonoids (jaceosidin, eupatilin)",
          "name_zh": "黄酮类",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "tannins",
          "name_zh": "鞣质",
          "category": "polyphenol",
          "notes": "contribute to local hemostatic effect"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "艾叶含挥发油（桉油精、侧柏酮、龙脑）、黄酮类及鞣质，具有温经止血、抗菌、抗炎及平喘作用；外用燃烧（艾灸）则以热力及挥发性成分发挥温通经络之效。",
        "en": "Artemisiae argyi Folium contains essential oils (cineole, thujone, borneol), flavonoids, and tannins, with hemostatic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and mild bronchodilatory effects; moxibustion relies on combined heat and volatile components."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "功能性子宫出血、崩漏",
          "indication_en": "Dysfunctional uterine bleeding and metrorrhagia",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性支气管炎（配伍使用）",
          "indication_en": "Chronic bronchitis (in combination)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "艾灸用于寒凝经络性痛证",
          "indication_en": "Moxibustion for cold-stagnation pain syndromes",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出艾叶水煎剂对革兰氏阳性菌及部分真菌有抑制作用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes inhibitory action of Artemisia argyi decoctions against Gram-positive bacteria and some fungi."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学提到艾叶挥发油中的侧柏酮含量较高时对中枢神经系统有一定神经毒性，提示大剂量或长期内服需谨慎。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that thujone in the essential oil may exert neurotoxic effects at high doses, cautioning against prolonged high-dose internal use."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 记载妊娠期应避免大剂量内服艾叶，因动物实验中显示子宫兴奋作用。",
          "note_en": "Brinker advises against high-dose internal use during pregnancy due to uterine-stimulant activity in animal models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "bai_ji",
    "slug": "bai-ji",
    "name_zh": "白及",
    "name_pinyin": "Bái Jí",
    "name_en": "Bletilla Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Bletillae Rhizoma",
    "category": "止血药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "sweet",
      "astringent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "收敛止血",
        "en": "Astringe and stop bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消肿生肌",
        "en": "Reduce swelling and generate flesh"
      },
      {
        "zh": "补肺敛疮",
        "en": "Tonify the Lung and heal sores"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止血护膜",
        "en": "Stop bleeding and protect mucosa"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "咯血、吐血，肺痨咯血"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外伤出血"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胃溃疡出血"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疮疡肿毒，皮肤皲裂"
      },
      {
        "zh": "烫火灼伤，溃疡久不收口"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "不宜与乌头类药物（川乌、草乌、附子）同用（十八反）。外感咳血、肺痈初起脓未成及实热壅肺者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服6–15g；研末吞服每次3–6g。外用适量，研末涂敷。因其含黏液质，入汤剂易糊，宜研粉冲服或另煎。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生白及",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于收敛止血、消肿生肌，为主要炮制品"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含大量黏液质，可形成保护膜，护肺胃黏膜。不宜与乌头类药物同用（十八反）。实证、热证出血初起慎用。现代用于肺结核、胃溃疡出血及外科创口愈合。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "味苦，平。主痈肿恶疮败疽，伤阴死肌，胃中邪气，贼风鬼击，痱缓不收。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "兰科植物白及的干燥块茎。归肺、肝、胃经。为收敛止血、生肌敛疮之要药，尤擅治肺胃出血，与三七同用治咯血，现代广泛用于消化性溃疡出血、肺结核空洞咯血及外科止血。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "bletilla glucomannan",
          "name_zh": "白及胶（甘露聚糖）",
          "category": "polysaccharide",
          "notes": "mucilaginous fraction responsible for hemostatic and wound-healing effect"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "bibenzyls and phenanthrenes",
          "name_zh": "联苄类与菲类",
          "category": "stilbenoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "militarine",
          "name_zh": "白及苷",
          "category": "glucoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "白及的主要活性成分为白及多糖（甘露聚糖）及联苄、菲类化合物，具有止血、促进肉芽组织生长、抗菌及局部黏膜保护作用。",
        "en": "Bletillae Rhizoma contains bletilla glucomannan, bibenzyl and phenanthrene derivatives, with hemostatic, granulation-promoting, antimicrobial, and mucosal-protective activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "上消化道出血（内服胶浆）",
          "indication_en": "Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (as mucilaginous decoction)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "外伤出血及烧烫伤创面",
          "indication_en": "Traumatic bleeding and burn wounds",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肺结核空洞咯血辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for hemoptysis in cavitary pulmonary tuberculosis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载白及曾在中国临床用于支气管扩张咯血及消化性溃疡出血，部分小样本研究显示良好止血效果。",
          "note_en": "Bensky documents use in China for bronchiectasis-related hemoptysis and peptic ulcer bleeding, with small clinical series reporting effective hemostasis."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学提到白及不可与乌头类同用（十八反），并注意其黏稠性可能影响其他药物吸收。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note the 'eighteen incompatibilities' proscription against combining with Aconitum species and caution that its mucilage may affect absorption of co-administered drugs."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "xian_he_cao",
    "slug": "xian-he-cao",
    "name_zh": "仙鹤草",
    "name_pinyin": "Xiān Hè Cǎo",
    "name_en": "Hairyvein Agrimonia",
    "name_latin": "Agrimoniae Herba",
    "category": "止血药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "astringent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "收敛止血",
        "en": "Astringe and stop bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "截疟止痢",
        "en": "Interrupt malaria and arrest dysentery"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解毒杀虫",
        "en": "Resolve toxicity and kill parasites"
      },
      {
        "zh": "补虚强壮",
        "en": "Tonify deficiency and strengthen the body"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "咯血、吐血、衄血、崩漏下血"
      },
      {
        "zh": "便血、尿血"
      },
      {
        "zh": "腹泻久痢，赤白痢疾"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疟疾寒热"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脱力劳伤，神疲乏力，血小板减少"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "外感初起、邪实积滞者慎用。收涩之性，不宜用于实证出血兼有瘀滞者（需配伍化瘀药）。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "一般内服6–12g；大剂量可用30–60g，尤治脱力劳伤、血小板减少、顽固性出血。外用适量，捣敷或煎汤熏洗。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生仙鹤草",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于收敛止血、截疟止痢、解毒，多用于各种出血证、疟疾、痢疾"
      },
      {
        "name": "仙鹤草炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "收涩止血之力更强，多用于各类慢性出血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "药性平和，毒性小，可较大剂量长期服用。高剂量（30–60g）治血小板减少性紫癜、再生障碍性贫血、脱力劳伤有效。单味煎汤亦可作补益。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "",
        "passage": "《滇南本草》载：治妇人月潮，赤白带下，面寒腹痛，日久赤白血痢。《伪药条辨》言其止血、强心、补虚。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蔷薇科植物龙芽草的干燥地上部分。归心、肝经。为广谱止血要药，兼能补虚、截疟、止痢，民间有“脱力草”之称，大剂量治疗脱力劳伤、血小板减少有良效。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "agrimoniin",
          "name_zh": "仙鹤草素",
          "category": "ellagitannin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "agrimophol",
          "category": "phloroglucinol"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "tannins (mixed)",
          "category": "hydrolyzable tannin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "luteolin-7-glucoside",
          "category": "flavonoid glycoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "仙鹤草主含鞣质类（仙鹤草素）及间苯三酚类（仙鹤草酚），具有止血、抗菌、驱绦虫及抗肿瘤研究活性。",
        "en": "Agrimonia herb contains tannins (agrimoniin) and phloroglucinols (agrimophol) with hemostatic, antimicrobial, taeniacidal and investigational antitumor activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "各种出血（咯血、吐血、便血、崩漏）",
          "indication_en": "Various hemorrhages (hemoptysis, hematemesis, hematochezia, uterine bleeding)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "绦虫病及慢性腹泻",
          "indication_en": "Tapeworm infection and chronic diarrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "收敛止血、补虚、消积、止痢、杀虫，通治各种出血不论寒热。",
          "note_en": "Astringes bleeding, tonifies deficiency, reduces accumulation, stops dysentery and kills parasites; used for bleeding of either cold or hot nature."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "仙鹤草酚在中国曾作为驱绦虫药研究及使用。",
          "note_en": "Agrimophol has been studied and historically used in China as a taeniacidal agent."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "ce_bai_ye",
    "slug": "ce-bai-ye",
    "name_zh": "侧柏叶",
    "name_pinyin": "Cè Bǎi Yè",
    "name_en": "Chinese Arborvitae Leaf",
    "name_latin": "Platycladi Cacumen",
    "category": "止血药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "astringent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "凉血止血",
        "en": "Cool blood and stop bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化痰止咳",
        "en": "Transform phlegm and stop cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "生发乌发",
        "en": "Promote hair growth and darken hair"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热解毒",
        "en": "Clear heat and resolve toxicity"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "血热妄行之吐血、衄血、咯血、便血、崩漏"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺热咳嗽，痰中带血"
      },
      {
        "zh": "须发早白，血热脱发"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热带下"
      },
      {
        "zh": "烫伤、痈疽疮疡（外用）"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "虚寒性出血者慎用。脾胃虚寒者不宜久服。外用引起接触性皮炎者停用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服6–12g；外用适量，煎水洗或捣敷。止血多炒炭用，其他用途多生用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生侧柏叶",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于清热凉血、化痰止咳、生发乌发，多用于肺热咳嗽、须发早白"
      },
      {
        "name": "侧柏炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "寒凉之性减，涩性增，专于收敛止血，多用于血热出血证"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含侧柏酮等挥发油，过量可致胃肠不适。长期大剂量可致肝损害。外用生发可配桑叶、何首乌浸酒外涂。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "柏实，味甘，平。主惊悸，安五脏，益气，除风湿痹。久服令人润泽美色，耳目聪明，不饥不老，轻身延年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "柏科植物侧柏的干燥枝梢及叶。归肺、肝、脾经。为凉血止血之要药，尤宜血热妄行之出血证，代表方四生丸（生侧柏叶、生荷叶、生艾叶、生地黄）。外用浸酒可生发乌发。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "essential oil (α-pinene, cedrol, thujone)",
          "name_zh": "挥发油",
          "category": "volatile oil"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "flavonoids (quercitrin, myricitrin, amentoflavone)",
          "name_zh": "黄酮类",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "tannins",
          "name_zh": "鞣质",
          "category": "polyphenol"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "侧柏叶含挥发油、黄酮类（穗花杉双黄酮、槲皮苷）及鞣质，具有止血、镇咳平喘、抗菌及促毛发生长作用。",
        "en": "Platycladi Cacumen contains volatile oils, flavonoids (amentoflavone, quercitrin), and tannins, with hemostatic, antitussive, antimicrobial, and hair-growth-promoting effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "血热妄行之咯血、吐血、衄血",
          "indication_en": "Bleeding from blood heat (hemoptysis, hematemesis, epistaxis)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "脱发（外用酊剂）",
          "indication_en": "Alopecia (topical tincture)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出侧柏叶炒炭后止血作用增强，传统上用于各种出血证。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that charring (Ce Bai Ye Tan) enhances the hemostatic effect and the herb is traditionally used for various bleeding patterns."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学提到侧柏叶提取物在动物实验中可缩短凝血时间并延长毛发生长期。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen report that Platycladus extracts shorten clotting time in animals and extend the hair anagen phase in rodent models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "di_yu",
    "slug": "di-yu",
    "name_zh": "地榆",
    "name_pinyin": "Dì Yú",
    "name_en": "Garden Burnet Root",
    "name_latin": "Sanguisorbae Radix",
    "category": "止血药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "sour",
      "astringent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "凉血止血",
        "en": "Cool blood and stop bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解毒敛疮",
        "en": "Resolve toxicity and heal sores"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热燥湿",
        "en": "Clear heat and dry dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泻火止痢",
        "en": "Drain fire and arrest dysentery"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "便血、痔血、血痢"
      },
      {
        "zh": "崩漏下血，月经过多"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血热出血，尿血"
      },
      {
        "zh": "烫火灼伤（外用）"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痈肿疮毒，湿疹"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "虚寒性出血、冷痢及下焦虚寒者慎用。大面积烫伤外用时应慎重（含鞣质大量吸收可致肝损害）。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服9–15g，大剂量可用30g；外用适量，研末涂敷。止血多炒炭用，解毒敛疮多生用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生地榆",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于清热凉血解毒、敛疮，多用于烫伤、湿疹、疮疡及便血初起"
      },
      {
        "name": "地榆炭",
        "method": "炒炭",
        "effect": "增强收敛止血之力，多用于下焦血热出血证，如便血、崩漏、痔血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含大量鞣质（约17%），大面积烧伤外用可经创面吸收致中毒性肝炎。虚寒血证忌用。不宜与含铁剂及生物碱类药物同服。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，微寒。主妇人乳痓痛，七伤，带下病，止痛，除恶肉，止汗，疗金疮。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蔷薇科植物地榆或长叶地榆的干燥根。归肝、大肠经。为凉血止血之要药，尤擅治下焦血热出血（便血、痔血、崩漏），兼能解毒敛疮，外用治烫伤有卓效（地榆膏）。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "sanguiin H-6 and related ellagitannins",
          "name_zh": "地榆鞣质",
          "category": "hydrolyzable tannin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "gallic acid",
          "name_zh": "没食子酸",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ziyuglycoside I",
          "name_zh": "地榆皂苷 I",
          "category": "triterpenoid saponin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "地榆富含鞣质（地榆鞣质、没食子酸）与三萜皂苷，药理研究示其收敛止血、抗菌、抗炎及促进创面愈合作用。",
        "en": "Diyu is rich in tannins (sanguiin H-6, gallic acid) and triterpene saponins; pharmacology shows astringent hemostatic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and wound-healing effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "便血、痔疮出血",
          "indication_en": "Hematochezia and hemorrhoidal bleeding",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "烧烫伤外用",
          "indication_en": "Topical treatment of burns and scalds",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "湿疹、皮肤溃疡外用",
          "indication_en": "Topical eczema and skin ulcers",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以鞣质含量作为质量评价指标之一；炒炭后鞣质含量变化，止血作用增强。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses tannin content as a quality marker; charring modifies tannin content and enhances hemostatic action."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "炒炭用于下焦出血与烧伤外敷为经典应用。",
          "note_en": "Char-fried preparation is classical for lower-burner bleeding and topical burn care."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "大面积烧伤外用时须防止鞣质过度吸收致肝损，已有个案报道。",
          "note_en": "Case reports warn against excessive tannin absorption with hepatotoxicity when applied to large burn surfaces."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "yi_mu_cao",
    "slug": "yi-mu-cao",
    "name_zh": "益母草",
    "name_pinyin": "Yì Mǔ Cǎo",
    "name_en": "Chinese Motherwort",
    "name_latin": "Leonuri Herba",
    "category": "活血化瘀药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "活血调经",
        "en": "Invigorate blood and regulate menstruation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛瘀生新",
        "en": "Dispel stasis and generate new blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利水消肿",
        "en": "Promote urination and reduce edema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热解毒",
        "en": "Clear heat and resolve toxicity"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "月经不调，痛经闭经",
        "en": "Irregular menstruation, dysmenorrhea, and amenorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "产后恶露不尽，瘀滞腹痛",
        "en": "Retained lochia and postpartum abdominal pain from blood stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "水肿尿少",
        "en": "Edema with scanty urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "急性肾炎水肿",
        "en": "Edema due to acute nephritis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "跌打损伤，瘀血肿痛",
        "en": "Traumatic injury with stasis, swelling, and pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疮痈肿毒，皮肤瘾疹",
        "en": "Sores, carbuncles, and skin rashes from toxic heat"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇禁用。血虚无瘀者及阴虚血少者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 30,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服常用9–30g；鲜品可用至12–40g；外用适量捣敷或煎汤外洗。大剂量(30–60g)可用于顽固性水肿。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生益母草",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "活血调经、利水消肿、清热解毒之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "益母草膏",
        "method": "浓煎收膏",
        "effect": "便于妇科长期服用，调经止痛作用持久"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "孕妇禁用，有明确兴奋子宫、促进宫缩作用。大剂量或久服可致肾损害，不宜长期超量服用。现代药理显示含益母草碱，对肾脏有一定毒性。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味辛，微温。主瘾疹痒，可作浴汤。一名益母，一名益明，一名大札。生池泽。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "唇形科植物益母草的干燥地上部分。归肝、心包、膀胱经。为妇科经产要药，善治经产诸疾，故名益母。既能活血祛瘀以调经止痛，又能利水消肿，瘀水同治。常与当归、川芎、赤芍等相配。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2794664",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "leonurine",
          "name_zh": "益母草碱",
          "category": "guanidine alkaloid",
          "notes": "uterotonic marker compound"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "stachydrine",
          "name_zh": "水苏碱",
          "category": "alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "leonuride",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "rutin",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "益母草主含益母草碱和水苏碱，具有兴奋子宫、改善微循环、利尿、保护心肌等作用，为活血调经、利水消肿的药理依据。",
        "en": "Leonurus contains leonurine and stachydrine, producing uterotonic, microcirculation-improving, diuretic and cardioprotective effects that underlie its blood-invigorating, menstruation-regulating and edema-reducing actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "产后子宫复旧不全、恶露不净",
          "indication_en": "Postpartum uterine involution failure and retained lochia",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "月经不调、痛经",
          "indication_en": "Menstrual irregularity and dysmenorrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "水肿（急性肾炎辅助）",
          "indication_en": "Edema (adjunct in acute nephritis)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以盐酸水苏碱为含量测定指标，益母草注射液用于产后出血。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses stachydrine hydrochloride as an assay marker; Yi Mu Cao injection is used for postpartum hemorrhage."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述益母草碱收缩子宫作用明确，孕妇禁用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note leonurine's clear uterotonic activity; contraindicated in pregnancy."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "niu_xi",
    "slug": "niu-xi",
    "name_zh": "牛膝",
    "name_pinyin": "Niú Xī",
    "name_en": "Achyranthes Root",
    "name_latin": "Achyranthis Bidentatae Radix",
    "category": "活血化瘀药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "sweet",
      "sour"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "活血通经",
        "en": "Invigorate blood and unblock the channels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "补肝肾，强筋骨",
        "en": "Tonify Liver and Kidney, strengthen sinews and bones"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利水通淋",
        "en": "Promote urination and unblock painful urinary dribbling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "引血下行",
        "en": "Direct blood downward"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "瘀血阻滞之经闭、痛经、产后腹痛",
        "en": "Amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and postpartum abdominal pain from blood stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝肾不足之腰膝酸痛，筋骨无力",
        "en": "Sore lumbus and weak knees from Liver and Kidney deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "淋证，水肿，小便不利",
        "en": "Lin syndrome, edema, and dysuria"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝阳上亢之头痛眩晕",
        "en": "Headache and dizziness from ascendant Liver yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血热妄行之吐血、衄血",
        "en": "Hematemesis and epistaxis from heat in the blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "齿痛，口舌生疮",
        "en": "Toothache and mouth sores from Stomach fire"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇禁用。月经过多者及梦遗滑精者忌用。中气下陷者慎用（其性下行）。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服常用5–12g；引血下行多用15g。怀牛膝偏补肝肾、强筋骨；川牛膝偏活血通经、祛风利湿。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生牛膝",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "活血祛瘀，引血下行，利水通淋"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒牛膝",
        "method": "酒炒",
        "effect": "增强活血通经、补肝肾、强筋骨之力，多用于风湿痹痛、腰膝酸软"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐牛膝",
        "method": "盐炒",
        "effect": "引药入肾，增强补肝肾、强筋骨之功，多用于肝肾亏虚"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "孕妇禁用，有兴奋子宫作用。怀牛膝(河南焦作产)补益力胜，川牛膝(四川产)活血力强，临床应分别使用。其性下行，不宜用于中气下陷、阴虚火旺而无瘀滞者。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦，酸。主寒湿痿痹，四肢拘挛，膝痛不可屈伸，逐血气，伤热火烂，堕胎。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "苋科植物牛膝的干燥根。归肝、肾经。有怀牛膝与川牛膝之分：怀牛膝长于补肝肾、强筋骨；川牛膝长于活血通经、祛风利湿。本品性善下行，能引血、引火、引药下行，为治下焦瘀血及肝阳上亢之要药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q10942116",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "ecdysterone (20-hydroxyecdysone)",
          "name_zh": "β-蜕皮甾酮",
          "category": "phytoecdysteroid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "achyranthes bidentata polysaccharides",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "oleanolic acid saponins",
          "category": "triterpene saponin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "怀牛膝与川牛膝含蜕皮甾酮、三萜皂苷与多糖，现代研究显示其具有抗炎、免疫调节、促骨形成及改善微循环作用，对应传统活血、补肝肾、强筋骨之功。",
        "en": "Achyranthes/Cyathula root contains phytoecdysteroids, triterpenoid saponins, and polysaccharides, with preclinical data on anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, osteogenic, and microcirculation-enhancing effects that parallel its traditional blood-moving and liver-kidney tonifying use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "腰膝酸软、骨关节退行性病变",
          "indication_en": "Lumbar and knee weakness, degenerative joint conditions",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "血瘀经闭、痛经",
          "indication_en": "Blood-stasis amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "引血下行（高血压头痛辅助）",
          "indication_en": "Directing blood downward (adjunct for hypertension-related headache)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 强调怀牛膝长于补益，川牛膝偏于活血，孕妇禁用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky distinguishes Huai-niu-xi (tonifying emphasis) from Chuan-niu-xi (blood-moving emphasis) and contraindicates both in pregnancy."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 记载蜕皮甾酮在动物模型中显示促蛋白合成与保护软骨细胞作用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite ecdysterone's anabolic and chondroprotective effects in animal models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "yu_jin",
    "slug": "yu-jin",
    "name_zh": "郁金",
    "name_pinyin": "Yù Jīn",
    "name_en": "Turmeric Tuber",
    "name_latin": "Curcumae Radix",
    "category": "活血化瘀药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "活血止痛",
        "en": "Invigorate blood and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "行气解郁",
        "en": "Move qi and resolve constraint"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清心凉血",
        "en": "Clear the Heart and cool blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利胆退黄",
        "en": "Benefit the Gallbladder and resolve jaundice"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "气滞血瘀之胸胁胀痛，胸痹心痛",
        "en": "Chest and hypochondriac pain, chest bi and Heart pain from qi stagnation and blood stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "月经不调，痛经闭经",
        "en": "Irregular menstruation, dysmenorrhea, and amenorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热病神昏，癫狂痰闭",
        "en": "Febrile disease with clouded spirit, mania and epilepsy from phlegm obstruction"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血热妄行之吐血、衄血、尿血",
        "en": "Hematemesis, epistaxis, and hematuria from heat in blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热黄疸，胆石症",
        "en": "Damp-heat jaundice and gallstones"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚失血及无气滞血瘀者忌用。孕妇慎用。不宜与丁香、母丁香同用（十九畏）。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服常用3–10g；研末服每次2–5g。广郁金(黄丝郁金)长于行气解郁；川郁金(黑郁金)长于活血祛瘀。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生郁金",
        "method": "生用切片",
        "effect": "活血行气、清心凉血、利胆退黄之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "醋郁金",
        "method": "醋炒",
        "effect": "增强疏肝止痛之功，多用于肝郁气滞胁痛"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "十九畏：郁金畏丁香，不宜与丁香、母丁香同用。孕妇慎用。阴虚失血及无气滞血瘀者忌服。广郁金与川郁金功效有别，临证宜区分使用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "classification": "正文",
        "passage": "郁金味辛苦，性寒，入心、肺、肝经，能行气解郁，凉血破瘀。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "姜科植物温郁金、姜黄、广西莪术或蓬莪术的干燥块根。归肝、心、肺经。有广郁金（黄丝郁金，产浙江）与川郁金（黑郁金，产四川、广西）之分：广郁金偏行气解郁，川郁金偏活血祛瘀。本品性寒入血分，既能活血，又能凉血、清心、利胆，为血中气药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2613707",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "curcumin",
          "name_zh": "姜黄素",
          "category": "diarylheptanoid/curcuminoid",
          "notes": "anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "demethoxycurcumin",
          "category": "curcuminoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ar-turmerone",
          "name_zh": "芳姜黄酮",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "curcumol",
          "name_zh": "莪术醇",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "郁金含姜黄素类及倍半萜类成分，具有利胆、保肝、抗炎、降脂及抗血小板聚集作用，为行气解郁、活血利胆的药理基础。",
        "en": "Curcuma rhizome (Yu Jin) contains curcuminoids and sesquiterpenes with choleretic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic and antiplatelet effects, underlying its qi-moving, blood-invigorating and bile-promoting actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "气滞血瘀之胁痛、痛经",
          "indication_en": "Hypochondriac pain and dysmenorrhea from qi stagnation and blood stasis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝胆湿热之黄疸、胆石症辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for jaundice and cholelithiasis from liver-gallbladder damp-heat",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "高脂血症辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for hyperlipidemia",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 区分郁金与姜黄，指出郁金性寒而姜黄性温，两者不可混用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky distinguishes Yu Jin (cooling) from Jiang Huang (warming), noting they are not interchangeable."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》收载四种来源的郁金，均以挥发油和姜黄素类含量为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists four Yu Jin source species, with volatile oil and curcuminoid content as quality markers."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "yan_hu_suo",
    "slug": "yan-hu-suo",
    "name_zh": "延胡索",
    "name_pinyin": "Yán Hú Suǒ",
    "name_en": "Corydalis Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Corydalis Rhizoma",
    "category": "活血化瘀药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "活血",
        "en": "Invigorate blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "行气",
        "en": "Move qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止痛",
        "en": "Alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通经散瘀",
        "en": "Unblock channels and disperse stasis"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "气滞血瘀诸痛，胸胁脘腹疼痛",
        "en": "Various pain from qi stagnation and blood stasis, including chest, hypochondriac, and epigastric pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痛经，月经不调",
        "en": "Dysmenorrhea and irregular menstruation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "产后瘀滞腹痛",
        "en": "Postpartum abdominal pain from stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "跌打损伤疼痛",
        "en": "Pain from traumatic injury"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风湿痹痛",
        "en": "Bi syndrome with wind-damp"
      },
      {
        "zh": "头痛，腰痛",
        "en": "Headache and lumbar pain"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇禁用。血热气虚及月经先期、血崩者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服常用3–10g；研末吞服每次1.5–3g。止痛以醋制品为佳。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生延胡索",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "活血行气之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "醋延胡索",
        "method": "醋炒",
        "effect": "增强行气止痛之功，醋制后生物碱易溶出，止痛效果显著增强，为临床常用品"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "孕妇禁用。现代药理研究显示含延胡索乙素等生物碱，具明显镇痛作用，但大剂量可致嗜睡、眩晕等。醋制可增强止痛效果并降低副作用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "classification": "正文",
        "passage": "延胡索能行血中气滞，气中血滞，故专治一身上下诸痛。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "罂粟科植物延胡索的干燥块茎。归肝、脾经。善于活血行气止痛，能行血中气滞、气中血滞，专治一身上下诸痛，为活血行气止痛之要药。李时珍谓其\"能行血中气滞，气中血滞，故专治一身上下诸痛，用之中的，妙不可言\"。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q5173375",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "tetrahydropalmatine (rotundine, THP)",
          "name_zh": "四氢帕马丁 / 延胡索乙素",
          "category": "isoquinoline alkaloid",
          "notes": "principal central analgesic; dopamine D2 receptor antagonist, non-addictive"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "corydaline",
          "name_zh": "延胡索甲素",
          "category": "isoquinoline alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "protopine",
          "name_zh": "原阿片碱",
          "category": "isoquinoline alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "dl-tetrahydrocoptisine",
          "category": "isoquinoline alkaloid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "延胡索主含异喹啉类生物碱，其中四氢帕马丁（罗通定）通过阻断多巴胺 D2 受体发挥中枢性镇痛作用，无成瘾性，是其活血行气止痛功效的物质基础。",
        "en": "Corydalis contains isoquinoline alkaloids; tetrahydropalmatine (rotundine) is the principal central analgesic, acting through dopamine D2 receptor blockade without addiction liability, providing the pharmacological basis for its blood-invigorating, qi-moving pain-relieving action."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "术后及慢性痛证镇痛",
          "indication_en": "Post-surgical and chronic pain management",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "气滞血瘀诸痛证（痛经、脘腹痛、头痛）",
          "indication_en": "Pain from qi stagnation and blood stasis (dysmenorrhea, epigastric pain, headache)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "失眠伴疼痛",
          "indication_en": "Insomnia accompanied by pain",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "罗通定片收录于《中国药典》，为非成瘾性中枢镇痛药。",
          "note_en": "Rotundine tablets are listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia as a non-addictive central analgesic."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述中国多项临床研究证实四氢帕马丁镇痛疗效可达吗啡 40%。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite multiple Chinese clinical studies showing THP analgesia reaches roughly 40% the potency of morphine."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 称延胡索为『活血行气止痛之良药』，现代研究与传统经验相印证。",
          "note_en": "Bensky calls Yan Hu Suo a superb blood-invigorating, qi-moving analgesic, with modern research corroborating classical experience."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "ru_xiang",
    "slug": "ru-xiang",
    "name_zh": "乳香",
    "name_pinyin": "Rǔ Xiāng",
    "name_en": "Frankincense",
    "name_latin": "Olibanum",
    "category": "活血化瘀药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "活血行气止痛",
        "en": "Invigorate blood, move qi, and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消肿生肌",
        "en": "Reduce swelling and generate flesh"
      },
      {
        "zh": "舒筋活络",
        "en": "Relax sinews and unblock the collaterals"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散瘀定痛",
        "en": "Disperse stasis and relieve pain"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "气滞血瘀之胸痹心痛，脘腹疼痛",
        "en": "Chest bi and epigastric pain from qi stagnation and blood stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痛经，经闭，产后瘀阻腹痛",
        "en": "Dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, and postpartum abdominal pain from stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风湿痹痛，筋脉拘挛",
        "en": "Wind-damp bi syndrome with sinew contracture"
      },
      {
        "zh": "跌打损伤，瘀血肿痛",
        "en": "Traumatic injury with stasis, swelling, and pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疮疡痈肿，溃后不敛",
        "en": "Sores and carbuncles, including unhealed ulcerations"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇禁用。胃弱者慎用。痈疽已溃者不宜多用。无瘀滞者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服常用3–10g，多入丸散；外用适量，研末调敷。常与没药相须为用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生乳香",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "活血消肿、外用生肌之力较强，多用于外科疮疡"
      },
      {
        "name": "醋乳香",
        "method": "醋炒",
        "effect": "减轻刺激性，降低恶心呕吐之弊，增强活血止痛之功，为内服常用品"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "气味浓烈，对胃有较强刺激性，可引起恶心呕吐，故胃弱者慎服。孕妇禁用。醋炒后可降低胃肠刺激。过敏体质者慎用。常与没药相须为用，二者合称\"乳没\"。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "classification": "正文",
        "passage": "乳香活血定痛，消肿生肌，治心腹诸痛，跌打损伤，疮疡肿毒。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "橄榄科植物乳香树及同属植物皮部渗出的油胶树脂。归心、肝、脾经。善于活血行气止痛，外用能消肿生肌，为伤科、外科要药。常与没药相须为用（\"乳没\"），如活络效灵丹、七厘散。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q161071",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "boswellic acids (β-boswellic, AKBA)",
          "name_zh": "乳香酸",
          "category": "pentacyclic triterpene acids"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "α-pinene and volatile oil",
          "category": "monoterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "gum polysaccharides",
          "category": "arabinogalactan"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "乳香为橄榄科 Boswellia 树脂，主含乳香酸（尤其 AKBA）及挥发油，现代研究显示其为 5-脂氧合酶抑制剂，具抗炎、抗关节炎及抗肿瘤的临床前与部分临床证据，对应传统活血止痛、消肿生肌之功。",
        "en": "Frankincense (Boswellia) resin contains boswellic acids (notably AKBA) and volatile oils. It acts as a 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor with preclinical and some clinical evidence for anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic, and antitumor effects, aligning with its traditional blood-moving and swelling-reducing use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "骨关节炎、类风湿关节炎辅助",
          "indication_en": "Osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "跌打损伤、痛经、痈疽肿痛",
          "indication_en": "Traumatic injury, dysmenorrhea, sores and swellings",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "溃疡性结肠炎辅助（Boswellia 提取物）",
          "indication_en": "Ulcerative colitis adjunct (Boswellia extract)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 专著收录 Olibanum (Boswellia)，支持其用于炎症性关节疾病及消化道炎症。",
          "note_en": "WHO monograph on Olibanum supports its use in inflammatory joint disease and GI inflammation."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 记载乳香为胃肠道刺激物，易致恶心呕吐，与没药同用减量；有接触性皮炎与过敏反应报告。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that frankincense is gastrointestinally irritating and often paired with myrrh at reduced dose; contact dermatitis and allergic reactions have been reported."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 提示 Boswellia 提取物可能增加 CYP3A4 底物代谢，与化疗药合用需谨慎。",
          "note_en": "Brinker notes that Boswellia extracts may increase CYP3A4 substrate metabolism; caution is advised with concurrent chemotherapy agents."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "mo_yao",
    "slug": "mo-yao",
    "name_zh": "没药",
    "name_pinyin": "Mò Yào",
    "name_en": "Myrrh",
    "name_latin": "Myrrha",
    "category": "活血化瘀药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "活血止痛",
        "en": "Invigorate blood and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消肿生肌",
        "en": "Reduce swelling and generate flesh"
      },
      {
        "zh": "破血散瘀",
        "en": "Break blood and disperse stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛瘀通经",
        "en": "Dispel stasis and unblock the menses"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "跌打损伤，瘀血肿痛",
        "en": "Traumatic injury with blood stasis, swelling, and pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气滞血瘀之胸腹胁痛",
        "en": "Chest, abdominal, and hypochondriac pain from qi and blood stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "经闭痛经，产后瘀阻腹痛",
        "en": "Amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and postpartum abdominal pain from stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风湿痹痛，筋脉拘挛",
        "en": "Wind-damp bi syndrome with sinew contracture"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疮疡痈肿，瘰疬瘿瘤",
        "en": "Sores, carbuncles, scrofula, and goiter"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇禁用。胃弱者慎用。无瘀滞及痈疽已溃者不宜用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服常用3–10g，多入丸散；外用适量，研末调敷。常与乳香相须为用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生没药",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "破血散瘀、消肿生肌之力较强，多外用"
      },
      {
        "name": "醋没药",
        "method": "醋炒",
        "effect": "降低刺激性及恶心呕吐之弊，增强活血止痛之功，为内服常用品"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "味苦气香，对胃刺激较强，易引起恶心呕吐，胃弱者慎用。孕妇禁用。醋炒后刺激性减轻。常与乳香同用，功效相辅相成，为伤科、外科要药。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "tai_ping_hui_min_he_ji_ju_fang",
        "classification": "正文",
        "passage": "没药破血止痛，消肿生肌，治金疮折伤，心腹瘀痛，癥瘕经闭。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "橄榄科植物地丁树或哈地丁树的干燥树脂。归心、肝、脾经。功似乳香而破血之力较胜。常与乳香相须为用（\"乳没\"），共奏活血散瘀、消肿止痛之功，为治跌打损伤、瘀血肿痛之要药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q83484",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "furanosesquiterpenes (furanoeudesma-1,3-diene)",
          "name_zh": "呋喃倍半萜（呋喃桉-1,3-二烯）",
          "category": "sesquiterpene",
          "notes": "analgesic principle"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "commiphoric acids",
          "name_zh": "没药酸",
          "category": "triterpene acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "essential oil",
          "name_zh": "挥发油",
          "category": "volatile oil"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "gum (water-soluble polysaccharide)",
          "name_zh": "树胶（水溶性多糖）",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "没药为橄榄科树脂，含呋喃倍半萜和挥发油，具镇痛、抗炎、抗菌及促进伤口愈合作用。",
        "en": "Myrrh is an oleo-gum-resin with furanosesquiterpenes and essential oil producing analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and wound-healing effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "跌打损伤和瘀血疼痛（常与乳香同用）",
          "indication_en": "Traumatic injury and blood-stasis pain (commonly paired with frankincense)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "口腔溃疡与牙龈炎漱口",
          "indication_en": "Oral ulcers and gingivitis mouthwash",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性难愈合创面外用",
          "indication_en": "Topical treatment of chronic non-healing wounds",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "没药活血止痛、消肿生肌，常与乳香配伍治跌打疮疡。",
          "note_en": "Invigorates blood, stops pain, and promotes tissue healing; paired with frankincense for trauma and sores."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "呋喃倍半萜显示阿片样镇痛作用及抗炎活性；挥发油对口腔细菌有抑制作用。",
          "note_en": "Furanosesquiterpenes show opioid-like analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity; essential oil inhibits oral bacteria."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "孕妇忌用——可能刺激子宫；大剂量偶见皮疹和胃肠不适。",
          "note_en": "Contraindicated in pregnancy — may stimulate the uterus; high doses occasionally cause rash and GI upset."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以挥发油含量及外观性状为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses essential oil content and macroscopic identification as quality markers."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "tian_nan_xing",
    "slug": "tian-nan-xing",
    "name_zh": "天南星",
    "name_pinyin": "Tiān Nán Xīng",
    "name_en": "Jack-in-the-Pulpit Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Arisaematis Rhizoma",
    "category": "化痰药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "燥湿化痰",
        "en": "Dry dampness and transform phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛风止痉",
        "en": "Expel wind and stop spasm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散结消肿",
        "en": "Dissipate nodules and reduce swelling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外用消肿止痛",
        "en": "Reduce swelling and alleviate pain when applied externally"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "顽痰咳嗽，痰多胸闷",
        "en": "Cough with stubborn phlegm and chest oppression"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风痰眩晕，中风痰壅",
        "en": "Dizziness from wind-phlegm and phlegm obstruction in wind-stroke"
      },
      {
        "zh": "癫痫惊风，口眼㖞斜",
        "en": "Epilepsy, childhood convulsions, and facial paralysis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "破伤风角弓反张",
        "en": "Tetanus with opisthotonos"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痈疽肿痛，毒蛇咬伤（外用）",
        "en": "Carbuncles, swelling, and snakebite (external use)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇禁用。生品内服宜慎，多作外用。阴虚燥咳、热极、血虚动风者禁用。不宜与附子、川乌、草乌同用（十八反相关注意，虽不在传统十八反之列，临床当慎重配伍）。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服须用制品：制南星3–10g；胆南星1.5–6g。生品一般外用，研末调敷或鲜品捣敷。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生天南星",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "有毒，内服宜慎，多作外用以消肿止痛，治痈疽肿痛、毒蛇咬伤"
      },
      {
        "name": "制天南星",
        "method": "白矾、生姜同煮制",
        "effect": "降低毒性，减轻刺激性，增强燥湿化痰之功，为内服常用品，主治顽痰咳嗽、风痰眩晕"
      },
      {
        "name": "胆南星",
        "method": "制南星粉末与牛胆汁(或胆膏)拌和发酵",
        "effect": "药性由温转凉，功能清热化痰、息风定惊，主治痰热惊风、癫痫、中风痰迷"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品有毒（生品毒性较强），误服或生用内服过量可致舌、咽、口腔麻木肿痛，严重者可致窒息。孕妇禁用。内服必须用炮制品。生品一般仅供外用。中毒可用生姜汁、白矾、醋等解之。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "味苦，温。主心痛，寒热结气，积聚伏梁，伤筋痿拘缓，利水道。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "天南星科植物天南星、异叶天南星或东北天南星的干燥块茎。归肺、肝、脾经。有毒。生品外用消肿止痛；制南星燥湿化痰、祛风止痉，用治顽痰咳嗽、风痰诸证；胆南星经牛胆汁制后药性转凉，清热化痰、息风定惊，为治痰热惊风之要药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q15261175",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "calcium oxalate raphides",
          "name_zh": "草酸钙针晶",
          "category": "irritant crystal (raw)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "triterpene saponins",
          "category": "saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "schizandrin-like lectins",
          "category": "lectin/protein"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "beta-sitosterol",
          "category": "sterol"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "天南星生品含草酸钙针晶及刺激性成分，有强烈喉舌麻辣和黏膜刺激性，必须炮制后使用；炮制品具化痰、祛风、解痉作用。",
        "en": "Raw Arisaema contains calcium oxalate raphides and irritant constituents causing severe mucosal and oropharyngeal injury; it must be processed before use. Processed product transforms phlegm, extinguishes wind, and relieves spasm."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "顽痰咳喘",
          "indication_en": "Stubborn phlegm cough and wheezing",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "中风痰壅、破伤风惊厥（胆南星）",
          "indication_en": "Wind-stroke phlegm obstruction and tetanus convulsion (as Dan Nan Xing)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "生品有毒，内服必须炮制；制南星燥湿化痰、祛风止痉，主治风痰证。",
          "note_en": "Raw form is toxic and must be processed before internal use; processed Nan Xing dries damp, transforms phlegm, extinguishes wind and stops spasms."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》明确区分生天南星（限外用）、制天南星、胆南星，并规定炮制工艺。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia distinguishes raw Arisaema (external use only), processed Arisaema, and bile-processed Dan Nan Xing, with defined processing procedures."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "毒性主要来源于黏膜刺激性针晶和刺激性蛋白质，炮制可使之大部分失活。",
          "note_en": "Toxicity arises from raphide crystals and irritant proteins; processing largely inactivates these."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "jie_geng",
    "slug": "jie-geng",
    "name_zh": "桔梗",
    "name_pinyin": "Jié Gěng",
    "name_en": "Balloon Flower Root",
    "name_latin": "Platycodonis Radix",
    "category": "化痰药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "宣肺",
        "en": "Diffuse the Lung"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛痰",
        "en": "Expel phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利咽",
        "en": "Benefit the throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "排脓",
        "en": "Expel pus"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "咳嗽痰多，胸闷不畅",
        "en": "Cough with copious phlegm and chest oppression"
      },
      {
        "zh": "咽喉肿痛，失音声哑",
        "en": "Sore throat and loss of voice"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺痈吐脓，胸痛",
        "en": "Lung abscess with purulent expectoration and chest pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外感风寒或风热咳嗽",
        "en": "Cough from wind-cold or wind-heat invasion"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰壅气滞，癃闭不通（开提肺气以通调水道）",
        "en": "Phlegm obstruction and urinary retention (via diffusing Lung qi to regulate waterways)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚久咳及咯血者不宜用。胃溃疡者慎用。气机上逆、呕吐、眩晕、阴虚火旺者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服常用3–10g。为诸药之舟楫，能载药上行，用量不宜过大以免引起恶心呕吐。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生桔梗",
        "method": "生用切片",
        "effect": "宣肺祛痰、利咽排脓，为临床常用品"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒桔梗",
        "method": "清炒",
        "effect": "缓和其宣散之性，用于咽喉不利兼有气滞者"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含桔梗皂苷，大剂量可刺激胃黏膜引起恶心呕吐，故用量不宜过大。胃溃疡、咯血者慎用或忌用。素有\"舟楫之剂\"之称，在方中多作引经药，载诸药上行于肺。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shang_han_lun",
        "classification": "正文",
        "passage": "少阴病二三日，咽痛者，可与甘草汤；不差者，与桔梗汤。桔梗汤方：桔梗一两，甘草二两。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "桔梗科植物桔梗的干燥根。归肺经。为诸药之舟楫，能载药上行达肺，善于宣通肺气、祛痰利咽、排脓消肿。常用于咳嗽痰多、咽喉肿痛及肺痈。与甘草相配（桔梗汤）为治咽痛之基础方。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q595237",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "platycodin D",
          "name_zh": "桔梗皂苷 D",
          "category": "triterpenoid saponin",
          "notes": "principal marker"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "platycodins A, C",
          "name_zh": "桔梗皂苷 A、C",
          "category": "triterpenoid saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polygalacic acid",
          "name_zh": "远志酸",
          "category": "triterpene aglycone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "inulin-type polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "菊糖型多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "桔梗含三萜皂苷（桔梗皂苷 D 等），刺激呼吸道黏膜反射性促进排痰，并具抗炎、降脂及免疫调节作用。",
        "en": "Platycodon contains triterpenoid saponins (notably platycodin D) that reflexively stimulate bronchial mucous secretion with expectorant, anti-inflammatory, lipid-lowering, and immunomodulatory effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "急慢性支气管炎咳痰",
          "indication_en": "Acute and chronic bronchitis with productive cough",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "咽喉肿痛",
          "indication_en": "Sore throat",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "辅助降脂",
          "indication_en": "Adjunctive lipid-lowering",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "皂苷刺激胃黏膜反射性增加支气管分泌，达到祛痰效果。",
          "note_en": "Saponins irritate the gastric mucosa and reflexively increase bronchial secretion, producing expectoration."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "桔梗开宣肺气、载药上行，为上焦引经要药。",
          "note_en": "Opens and disseminates lung qi and guides other herbs upward — a principal upper-burner channel-leading herb."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以桔梗皂苷 D 含量（不少于 0.10%）为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies platycodin D (≥0.10%) as the quality marker."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "chuan_bei_mu",
    "slug": "chuan-bei-mu",
    "name_zh": "川贝母",
    "name_pinyin": "Chuān Bèi Mǔ",
    "name_en": "Sichuan Fritillary Bulb",
    "name_latin": "Fritillariae Cirrhosae Bulbus",
    "category": "化痰药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热润肺",
        "en": "Clear heat and moisten the Lung"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化痰止咳",
        "en": "Transform phlegm and stop cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散结消肿",
        "en": "Dissipate nodules and reduce swelling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "养阴润燥",
        "en": "Nourish yin and moisten dryness"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肺热燥咳，干咳少痰",
        "en": "Dry cough from Lung heat with scanty phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴虚劳嗽，咯痰带血",
        "en": "Taxation cough from yin deficiency with blood-streaked sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "虚劳久咳，痰少咽燥",
        "en": "Chronic cough from consumption with scanty phlegm and dry throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘰疬痰核",
        "en": "Scrofula and phlegm nodules"
      },
      {
        "zh": "乳痈，肺痈初起",
        "en": "Breast abscess and early-stage Lung abscess"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "寒痰、湿痰不宜用。脾胃虚寒便溏者慎用。不宜与乌头类药物同用（十八反：贝母反乌头）。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g；研粉冲服每次1–2g效佳。川贝母价贵，多用于虚证、燥证之咳嗽；实证热痰宜用浙贝。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "川贝母",
        "method": "生用，拣净杂质，打碎或研粉",
        "effect": "清热润肺、化痰止咳，多用于研粉冲服或入丸散，以保存药效"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "十八反：贝母反乌头，不宜与川乌、草乌、附子等同用。本品性偏凉润，寒痰、湿痰咳嗽及脾胃虚寒者不宜。川贝母资源稀少，价格昂贵，不可滥用。常与梨同炖以治燥咳（川贝炖梨）。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味辛，平。主伤寒烦热，淋沥邪气，疝瘕，喉痹，乳难，金疮风痉。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "百合科植物川贝母、暗紫贝母、甘肃贝母或梭砂贝母的干燥鳞茎。归肺、心经。与浙贝相较，川贝偏于润肺止咳、养阴化痰，尤宜于虚劳久咳、肺热燥咳及阴虚咳嗽；浙贝则偏于清热化痰、开郁散结，多用于实证热痰。川贝价贵，临床多研粉冲服。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q5504874",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "peimine (verticine)",
          "name_zh": "贝母素甲",
          "category": "steroidal alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "peiminine (verticinone)",
          "name_zh": "贝母素乙",
          "category": "steroidal alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "imperialine",
          "name_zh": "川贝碱",
          "category": "steroidal alkaloid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "川贝母的主要活性成分为甾体生物碱（贝母素甲、贝母素乙、川贝碱），具有镇咳、祛痰、平喘及降压作用。",
        "en": "Fritillariae cirrhosae Bulbus contains steroidal alkaloids (peimine, peiminine, imperialine) with antitussive, expectorant, bronchodilatory, and hypotensive activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "阴虚燥咳及久咳痰少",
          "indication_en": "Yin-deficient dry cough and chronic cough with scanty sputum",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性支气管炎（川贝枇杷膏等制剂）",
          "indication_en": "Chronic bronchitis (as in Chuan Bei Pi Pa Gao)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出川贝母与乌头（附子）列入十八反，不宜同用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes the 'eighteen incompatibilities' prohibition against combining Fritillaria with Aconitum species (fu zi)."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学记载川贝母生物碱在动物实验中显示剂量依赖性的镇咳和祛痰作用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen report dose-dependent antitussive and expectorant activity of Fritillaria alkaloids in animal studies."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》2020年版规定川贝母以贝母素甲和贝母素乙总量不得少于 0.050% 计。",
          "note_en": "The 2020 Chinese Pharmacopoeia requires total peimine plus peiminine of not less than 0.050% in Chuan Bei Mu."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "zhe_bei_mu",
    "slug": "zhe-bei-mu",
    "name_zh": "浙贝母",
    "name_pinyin": "Zhè Bèi Mǔ",
    "name_en": "Thunberg Fritillary Bulb",
    "name_latin": "Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus",
    "category": "化痰药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热化痰",
        "en": "Clear heat and transform phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "散结消痈",
        "en": "Dissipate nodules and resolve carbuncles"
      },
      {
        "zh": "降气止咳",
        "en": "Direct qi downward and stop cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解毒疗疮",
        "en": "Resolve toxicity and treat sores"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "风热或痰热咳嗽，痰黄黏稠",
        "en": "Cough from wind-heat or phlegm-heat with thick yellow sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺痈吐脓",
        "en": "Lung abscess with purulent expectoration"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘰疬痰核，瘿瘤",
        "en": "Scrofula, phlegm nodules, and goiter"
      },
      {
        "zh": "乳痈，疮疡肿毒",
        "en": "Breast abscess and toxic sores"
      },
      {
        "zh": "咽喉肿痛",
        "en": "Sore and swollen throat"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "寒痰、湿痰及脾胃虚寒者不宜用。不宜与乌头类药物同用（十八反：贝母反乌头）。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服5–10g。浙贝清热散结之力胜于川贝，多用于实证；川贝润肺化痰之力胜于浙贝，多用于虚证。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "浙贝母",
        "method": "生用切片或打碎",
        "effect": "清热化痰、散结消痈，为临床常用品"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "十八反：贝母反乌头，不宜与川乌、草乌、附子等同用。本品苦寒，脾胃虚寒、寒痰湿痰咳嗽者不宜。清热散结之功胜于川贝，多用于风热痰火及痈疽瘰疬等实证。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "wen_bing_tiao_bian",
        "classification": "正文",
        "passage": "浙贝清降肺胃之热，开郁散结，善治风热痰火之咳嗽及瘰疬痈肿。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "百合科植物浙贝母的干燥鳞茎。归肺、心经。浙贝母原名象贝，产浙江，与川贝母相对。与川贝相较，浙贝苦寒较甚，偏于清热化痰、开郁散结，多用于外感风热、痰火郁结之咳嗽，以及瘰疬、瘿瘤、乳痈、肺痈等实证；川贝则偏于润肺止咳，多用于虚证燥咳。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q5504876",
    "verification": {
      "status": "verified",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "peimine (verticine)",
          "name_zh": "贝母素甲",
          "category": "steroidal isoquinoline alkaloid",
          "notes": "principal antitussive alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "peiminine (verticinone)",
          "name_zh": "贝母素乙",
          "category": "steroidal alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "zhebeirine",
          "category": "steroidal alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "peimisine",
          "category": "steroidal alkaloid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "浙贝母主含贝母素甲（peimine）和贝母素乙（peiminine）等甾体异喹啉类生物碱，具有镇咳、祛痰、平喘、解痉及抗炎作用，较川贝母清热散结力更强。",
        "en": "Fritillaria thunbergii bulb contains steroidal isoquinoline alkaloids including peimine (verticine) and peiminine with antitussive, expectorant, antiasthmatic, antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory effects; compared with Chuan Bei Mu it more strongly clears heat and disperses nodules."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "痰热咳嗽",
          "indication_en": "Cough from phlegm-heat",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "瘰疬痰核、疮痈肿毒",
          "indication_en": "Scrofula, phlegm nodules and suppurative sores",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 强调浙贝母反乌头类，十八反禁忌须遵守。",
          "note_en": "Bensky emphasizes that Zhe Bei Mu is part of the eighteen antagonisms and is incompatible with Aconitum species."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以贝母素甲和贝母素乙的总含量为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses combined peimine and peiminine content as a quality marker."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "gua_lou",
    "slug": "gua-lou",
    "name_zh": "瓜蒌",
    "name_pinyin": "Guā Lóu",
    "name_en": "Snakegourd Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Trichosanthis Fructus",
    "category": "化痰止咳平喘药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热化痰",
        "en": "Clear heat and transform phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宽胸散结",
        "en": "Expand the chest and dissipate nodules"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肺止咳",
        "en": "Moisten the Lung and stop cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肠通便",
        "en": "Moisten the intestines and unblock the bowels"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "痰热咳嗽，痰黄稠黏",
        "en": "Cough from phlegm-heat with thick yellow sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胸痹心痛，胸闷胁胀",
        "en": "Chest bi-obstruction with cardiac pain, chest oppression, and hypochondriac distension"
      },
      {
        "zh": "结胸痞满",
        "en": "Chest bind with focal distention and fullness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺痈咳吐脓血",
        "en": "Lung abscess with cough expectorating pus and blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "乳痈肿痛",
        "en": "Breast abscess with swelling and pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肠燥便秘",
        "en": "Constipation due to intestinal dryness"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚寒、大便溏泄及湿痰、寒痰者不宜。反乌头（十八反），不宜与川乌、草乌、附子同用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "全瓜蒌9–15g；瓜蒌皮6–10g偏于宽胸；瓜蒌仁9–15g偏于润肠。打碎入煎。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生瓜蒌",
        "method": "全瓜蒌生用，捣碎",
        "effect": "清热化痰、宽胸散结、润肠通便并重"
      },
      {
        "name": "瓜蒌霜",
        "method": "瓜蒌仁去油制霜",
        "effect": "减其滑润之性，长于化痰而不致滑肠"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含脂肪油，滑肠作用明显，脾虚便溏者慎用。与乌头类药物配伍有毒性协同风险，属十八反禁忌。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，寒。主消渴，身热，烦满，大热，补虚安中，续绝伤。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "葫芦科植物栝楼或双边栝楼的干燥成熟果实。归肺、胃、大肠经。既能清肺化痰以治痰热咳嗽，又能宽胸散结以治胸痹结胸，兼润肠通便，为治疗胸痹要药，常与薤白、半夏相配（瓜蒌薤白白酒汤、瓜蒌薤白半夏汤）。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2457115",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "trichosanthin (from root, not fruit)",
          "name_zh": "天花粉蛋白（主要来源于根）",
          "category": "ribosome-inactivating protein",
          "notes": "Chiefly in root (tianhuafen); fruit and peel emphasized below"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "trichosanic acid and fatty oils",
          "category": "fatty oils"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cucurbitacins",
          "name_zh": "葫芦素类",
          "category": "triterpenoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "flavonoid C-glycosides",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "瓜蒌（含瓜蒌皮、瓜蒌仁及全瓜蒌）主含脂肪油、三萜皂苷、葫芦素类与黄酮苷，药理示其祛痰、扩冠、抗炎、润肠通便与抗血小板作用。",
        "en": "Gualou (peel, seed, whole fruit) contains fatty oils, triterpene saponins, cucurbitacins and flavonoid glycosides; pharmacology shows expectorant, coronary-dilating, anti-inflammatory, laxative and antiplatelet effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "痰热咳嗽、胸痹（冠心病心绞痛）",
          "indication_en": "Phlegm-heat cough and chest bi (angina)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "便秘（肠燥津伤型）",
          "indication_en": "Constipation (dry intestines, fluid injury)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "冠心病辅助",
          "indication_en": "Coronary artery disease (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》分别收载瓜蒌、瓜蒌皮与瓜蒌子，并规定各自的质量标准。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists gualou, gualou pi and gualou ren separately with distinct quality standards."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "瓜蒌薤白白酒汤为治疗胸痹经典方。",
          "note_en": "Gualou Xiebai Baijiu Tang is the classical formula for chest bi (angina-like pain)."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "十八反：瓜蒌不可与乌头、附子同用。",
          "note_en": "Classical eighteen-antagonism: gualou incompatible with wutou and fuzi."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "zhu_ru",
    "slug": "zhu-ru",
    "name_zh": "竹茹",
    "name_pinyin": "Zhú Rú",
    "name_en": "Bamboo Shavings",
    "name_latin": "Bambusae Caulis in Taeniam",
    "category": "化痰止咳平喘药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热化痰",
        "en": "Clear heat and transform phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "除烦止呕",
        "en": "Eliminate vexation and stop vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "凉血安胎",
        "en": "Cool the blood and calm the fetus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清心涤痰",
        "en": "Clear the Heart and flush phlegm"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "痰热咳嗽，咯痰黄稠",
        "en": "Cough from phlegm-heat with thick yellow sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胆火挟痰，心烦不寐",
        "en": "Gallbladder fire with phlegm causing vexation and insomnia"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胃热呕吐，妊娠恶阻",
        "en": "Vomiting from stomach heat and morning sickness in pregnancy"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰热惊悸，癫痫",
        "en": "Phlegm-heat palpitations and epilepsy"
      },
      {
        "zh": "吐血衄血，崩漏",
        "en": "Hematemesis, epistaxis, and uterine bleeding from heat"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "寒痰咳嗽及胃寒呕吐者不宜。脾胃虚寒者慎用。凡与乌头类药物配伍仍应参照十八反慎用含竹沥之剂。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服5–10g；止呕宜用姜汁炙；清热化痰宜生用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生竹茹",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于清热化痰、凉血"
      },
      {
        "name": "姜竹茹",
        "method": "姜汁炙",
        "effect": "增强降逆止呕之功，用于胃热呕吐"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性偏凉，不耐寒凉者及脾胃虚寒证不宜使用。鲜品与陈久者效力有异，临床宜辨。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "classification": "草部",
        "passage": "竹茹，甘微寒，主治呕啘，温气寒热，吐血崩中，溢筋。",
        "source_chapter": "木部·竹"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "禾本科植物青秆竹、大头典竹或淡竹的茎秆的干燥中间层。归肺、胃、心、胆经。功专清热化痰、除烦止呕，为治痰热咳嗽、胃热呕逆及胆郁痰扰之常用药，常与半夏、陈皮、枳实相配（温胆汤）。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "triterpenoids (friedelin, taraxerol)",
          "name_zh": "木栓酮、蒲公英萜醇",
          "category": "triterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "2,5-dimethoxy-p-benzoquinone",
          "category": "quinone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "p-coumaric acid",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cellulose and hemicellulose",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "竹茹含三萜类及酚酸类成分，具有抗炎、止吐、抗菌及轻度镇静作用，为清热化痰、除烦止呕的药理基础。",
        "en": "Bamboo shavings contain triterpenes and phenolic acids with anti-inflammatory, antiemetic, antimicrobial and mild sedative effects, underlying their phlegm-clearing, vexation-resolving and antiemetic actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "痰热咳嗽、胸闷",
          "indication_en": "Cough and chest oppression from phlegm-heat",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "胃热呕吐、妊娠恶阻",
          "indication_en": "Stomach-heat vomiting and morning sickness",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 称竹茹清热化痰、除烦止呕，尤宜胃热呕逆。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Zhu Ru clears heat, transforms phlegm and stops vomiting, particularly in stomach-heat nausea."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 介绍竹茹配伍半夏、陈皮（温胆汤）用于痰热扰心之失眠呕吐。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen describe Zhu Ru combined with Ban Xia and Chen Pi in Wen Dan Tang for insomnia and vomiting from phlegm-heat disturbing the heart."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "sang_bai_pi",
    "slug": "sang-bai-pi",
    "name_zh": "桑白皮",
    "name_pinyin": "Sāng Bái Pí",
    "name_en": "Mulberry Root Bark",
    "name_latin": "Mori Cortex",
    "category": "化痰止咳平喘药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "泻肺平喘",
        "en": "Drain the Lung and calm wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利水消肿",
        "en": "Promote urination and reduce edema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清肺热",
        "en": "Clear Lung heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "降肺气",
        "en": "Direct Lung qi downward"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肺热咳喘，痰黄气粗",
        "en": "Cough and wheezing from Lung heat with yellow phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "皮肤水肿，面目浮肿",
        "en": "Edema of the skin, face, and eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "小便不利，风水相搏",
        "en": "Dysuria with wind-water clashing (superficial edema)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺虚有热之咳血",
        "en": "Hemoptysis from Lung deficiency with heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "高血压肝阳偏亢",
        "en": "Hypertension with ascendant Liver yang"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "肺虚无火，风寒咳嗽者忌用。脾虚便溏者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–12g；泻肺利水生用，肺虚咳嗽蜜炙用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生桑白皮",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "泻肺平喘、利水消肿之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "蜜桑白皮",
        "method": "蜜炙",
        "effect": "润肺止咳，减缓寒泻之性，宜于肺虚咳嗽"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性寒泻肺，不宜长期大剂量服用以免伤肺气。外层粗皮须刮净后入药，以免刺激咽喉。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "桑根白皮，味甘寒。主伤中，五劳六极，羸瘦，崩中，脉绝，补虚益气。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "桑科植物桑的干燥根皮。归肺经。甘寒入肺，既能泻肺火以平喘，又能通调水道以利水消肿，尤宜于肺热壅盛之咳喘及风水、皮水之浮肿，为《金匮要略》五皮饮、《小儿药证直诀》泻白散之主药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2629544",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "mulberroside A",
          "name_zh": "桑皮苷 A",
          "category": "stilbene glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "moran A (glycoprotein)",
          "category": "glycoprotein"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "sanggenon-type flavonoids",
          "category": "prenylated flavonoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "桑白皮含桑皮苷、桑根皮素类黄酮及降糖多肽（Moran A），现代研究显示其有平喘、利尿、降血糖及降血压作用，呼应传统泻肺平喘、利水消肿之功。",
        "en": "Mulberry root bark contains stilbene glycosides (mulberroside A), prenylated flavonoids (sanggenons), and the hypoglycemic glycoprotein moran A, with preclinical data on bronchodilation, diuresis, blood-glucose lowering, and hypotensive effects that parallel its traditional lung-draining and edema-reducing use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肺热咳嗽、气喘",
          "indication_en": "Lung-heat cough and wheezing",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "水肿、小便不利",
          "indication_en": "Edema and difficult urination",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "高血压、糖尿病辅助",
          "indication_en": "Hypertension and diabetes adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出桑白皮蜜炙可减其寒性，专用于肺热咳喘。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes honey-fried Sang Bai Pi tempers the cold nature and is preferred for lung-heat cough and wheezing."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述桑白皮提取物具利尿与降压作用，与其传统利水消肿相合。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize diuretic and hypotensive effects of mulberry root bark extracts, matching its traditional water-regulating use."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "zi_wan",
    "slug": "zi-wan",
    "name_zh": "紫菀",
    "name_pinyin": "Zǐ Wǎn",
    "name_en": "Aster Root",
    "name_latin": "Asteris Radix et Rhizoma",
    "category": "化痰止咳平喘药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "润肺下气",
        "en": "Moisten the Lung and direct qi downward"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化痰止咳",
        "en": "Transform phlegm and stop cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温润不燥",
        "en": "Warm and moisten without being drying"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宣肺祛痰",
        "en": "Diffuse the Lung and expel phlegm"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "咳嗽有痰，无论寒热",
        "en": "Cough with phlegm, whether cold or hot in nature"
      },
      {
        "zh": "新久咳嗽，痰多气逆",
        "en": "Acute or chronic cough with copious phlegm and counterflow qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺虚劳嗽，咯痰带血",
        "en": "Consumptive cough from Lung deficiency with blood-streaked sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风寒袭肺，咳嗽咽痒",
        "en": "Cough and throat itch from wind-cold fettering the Lung"
      },
      {
        "zh": "百日咳，顿咳",
        "en": "Whooping cough and paroxysmal cough"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚火旺、肺热咳血者慎用（需与清肺润燥药同用，不宜单用）。实热壅肺者不宜单用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服5–10g；外感风寒生用，内伤肺虚蜜炙用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生紫菀",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "长于宣肺散邪，用于外感新咳"
      },
      {
        "name": "蜜紫菀",
        "method": "蜜炙",
        "effect": "增强润肺止咳之功，用于肺虚久咳"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性质温润平和，寒热咳嗽皆可配伍，但单用力薄，常与款冬花相须为用。含微量吡咯里西啶生物碱，不宜长期大量服用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味苦，温。主咳逆上气，胸中寒热结气，去蛊毒，痿蹶，安五脏。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物紫菀的干燥根及根茎。归肺经。味苦辛而性温润，温而不热，润而不腻，善开肺郁、化痰浊而止咳逆，为治一切咳嗽之要药，寒热虚实咸宜，常与款冬花相须为用（紫菀汤）。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2305077",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "shionone",
          "name_zh": "紫菀酮",
          "category": "triterpene ketone",
          "notes": "principal marker; expectorant activity"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "astersaponins (epifriedelinol)",
          "category": "triterpenoid saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "quercetin",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "astin A–C",
          "name_zh": "紫菀环肽",
          "category": "cyclic peptide",
          "notes": "cytotoxic cyclopeptides investigated preclinically"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "紫菀含紫菀酮、三萜皂苷及紫菀环肽等成分，具有祛痰、镇咳、抗菌及抗肿瘤的药理活性，为润肺下气止咳的依据。",
        "en": "Aster tataricus root contains shionone, triterpenoid saponins and astin cyclopeptides with expectorant, antitussive, antimicrobial and preclinical antitumor activities, underlying its lung-moistening and cough-stopping actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "外感风寒或内伤咳嗽有痰",
          "indication_en": "Productive cough from wind-cold or internal causes",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "久咳痰中带血",
          "indication_en": "Chronic cough with blood-streaked sputum",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出紫菀性温润而不燥，寒热咳嗽皆可配伍使用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Zi Wan is warming and moistening without being drying, suitable in both cold and hot cough patterns when properly combined."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以紫菀酮为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses shionone as the assay marker."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "kuan_dong_hua",
    "slug": "kuan-dong-hua",
    "name_zh": "款冬花",
    "name_pinyin": "Kuǎn Dōng Huā",
    "name_en": "Coltsfoot Flower",
    "name_latin": "Farfarae Flos",
    "category": "化痰止咳平喘药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "润肺下气",
        "en": "Moisten the Lung and direct qi downward"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止咳化痰",
        "en": "Stop cough and transform phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温肺散寒",
        "en": "Warm the Lung and dissipate cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止咳平喘",
        "en": "Stop cough and calm wheezing"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "新久咳嗽，咳逆上气",
        "en": "Acute or chronic cough with counterflow qi ascending"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风寒犯肺，咳嗽气急",
        "en": "Cough and rapid breathing from wind-cold attacking the Lung"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺痨咳嗽，咯痰带血",
        "en": "Consumptive cough with blood-tinged sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "哮喘痰多",
        "en": "Wheezing asthma with copious phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺虚久咳，喉痒音哑",
        "en": "Chronic cough from Lung deficiency with throat itch and hoarseness"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚燥咳、肺火壅盛之咳血者不宜单用。含吡咯里西啶生物碱，不宜久服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服5–10g；内伤久咳宜蜜炙；外感咳嗽宜生用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生款冬花",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "宣肺解表力强，用于外感咳嗽"
      },
      {
        "name": "蜜款冬花",
        "method": "蜜炙",
        "effect": "润肺止咳之功增强，用于内伤久咳"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含吡咯里西啶类生物碱（senkirkine 等），大剂量或久服对肝有潜在毒性，临床宜控制疗程与剂量。常与紫菀相须为用，一宣一降，相得益彰。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味辛，温。主咳逆上气善喘，喉痹，诸惊痫，寒热邪气。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "菊科植物款冬的干燥花蕾。归肺经。辛温润肺，止咳化痰，为治咳嗽要药，尤宜于风寒及虚寒咳嗽，凡咳无问寒热虚实皆可配伍应用，与紫菀相须配对（紫菀散、百花膏）。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q156880",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "tussilagone",
          "name_zh": "款冬酮",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "rutin",
          "name_zh": "芦丁",
          "category": "flavonoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "pyrrolizidine alkaloids (senkirkine, senecionine)",
          "name_zh": "吡咯里西啶生物碱（克氏千里光碱、千里光碱）",
          "category": "pyrrolizidine alkaloid",
          "notes": "hepatotoxic; limit duration and dose"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "triterpene saponins",
          "name_zh": "三萜皂苷",
          "category": "triterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "款冬花含款冬酮、黄酮及吡咯里西啶生物碱，具止咳、祛痰、升压及抗炎作用。",
        "en": "Tussilago contains tussilagone, flavonoids, and pyrrolizidine alkaloids with antitussive, expectorant, pressor, and anti-inflammatory effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性咳嗽及支气管炎",
          "indication_en": "Chronic cough and bronchitis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "哮喘辅助",
          "indication_en": "Asthma adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "款冬酮具明显止咳和短暂升压作用，并呈现抗炎活性。",
          "note_en": "Tussilagone produces notable antitussive and transient pressor effects and shows anti-inflammatory activity."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "含肝毒性吡咯里西啶生物碱；孕妇、哺乳期及肝病患者禁用；不宜长期或大剂量使用。",
          "note_en": "Contains hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids — contraindicated in pregnancy, lactation, and liver disease; avoid long-term or high-dose use."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以款冬酮含量（不少于 0.070%）为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies tussilagone (≥0.070%) as the quality marker."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "suan_zao_ren",
    "slug": "suan-zao-ren",
    "name_zh": "酸枣仁",
    "name_pinyin": "Suān Zǎo Rén",
    "name_en": "Sour Jujube Seed",
    "name_latin": "Ziziphi Spinosae Semen",
    "category": "安神药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "sour"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "养心补肝",
        "en": "Nourish the Heart and supplement the Liver"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宁心安神",
        "en": "Quiet the Heart and calm the spirit"
      },
      {
        "zh": "敛汗生津",
        "en": "Astringe sweat and generate fluids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "益阴除烦",
        "en": "Augment yin and eliminate vexation"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "心肝血虚，虚烦不眠",
        "en": "Insomnia and vexation due to Heart-Liver blood deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "惊悸多梦",
        "en": "Palpitations, fright, and excessive dreaming"
      },
      {
        "zh": "体虚多汗，自汗盗汗",
        "en": "Spontaneous or night sweats from constitutional deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "津伤口渴",
        "en": "Thirst from damaged fluids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "更年期潮热失眠",
        "en": "Menopausal hot flashes and insomnia"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "有实邪郁火及患有滑泄症者慎服。凡肝胆实热、肝阳上亢之不寐不宜单用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 10,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服10–15g；研末吞服每次1.5–3g；大剂量可用至30g。打碎入煎效佳。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生酸枣仁",
        "method": "生用，打碎",
        "effect": "养肝宁心、敛汗止汗"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒酸枣仁",
        "method": "炒黄或炒焦",
        "effect": "香气醒脾，安神作用增强，多用于虚烦不眠"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "炒用与生用皆可安神，历代多用炒品。过量（>30g）或可致嗜睡、乏力。与镇静催眠类药物合用需注意相加效应。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味酸，平。主心腹寒热，邪结气聚，四肢酸疼，湿痹。久服安五脏，轻身延年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "鼠李科植物酸枣的干燥成熟种子。归心、肝、胆经。甘酸质润，入心、肝经而养血安神，为治虚烦不眠之要药，《金匮要略》酸枣仁汤即以之为君，配知母、川芎、茯苓、甘草治肝血不足、虚烦不得眠。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1420605",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "jujuboside A",
          "name_zh": "酸枣仁皂苷A",
          "category": "dammarane-type saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "jujuboside B",
          "category": "dammarane saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "spinosin",
          "name_zh": "斯皮诺素",
          "category": "C-glycosyl flavonoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "betulinic acid",
          "category": "triterpenoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "酸枣仁主含皂苷类（酸枣仁皂苷A/B）和黄酮类（斯皮诺素），具有镇静催眠、抗焦虑及心脏保护作用。",
        "en": "Zizyphus seed contains jujubosides A/B and the flavone spinosin, with sedative-hypnotic, anxiolytic and cardioprotective activities."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "失眠、心悸易惊",
          "indication_en": "Insomnia with palpitations and anxiety",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "虚烦不得眠、心阴不足",
          "indication_en": "Vexation and sleeplessness from heart-yin deficiency",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "养心安神、敛汗生津，为酸枣仁汤君药。",
          "note_en": "Nourishes the heart, calms spirit, and restrains sweating; sovereign herb of Suan Zao Ren Tang."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "多项小样本临床试验支持酸枣仁提取物改善睡眠质量。",
          "note_en": "Multiple small clinical trials support Zizyphus extract for improving sleep quality."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以斯皮诺素为含量测定指标，不得少于0.080%。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses spinosin as the assay marker, requiring not less than 0.080%."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "bai_zi_ren",
    "slug": "bai-zi-ren",
    "name_zh": "柏子仁",
    "name_pinyin": "Bǎi Zǐ Rén",
    "name_en": "Arborvitae Seed",
    "name_latin": "Platycladi Semen",
    "category": "安神药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "养心安神",
        "en": "Nourish the Heart and calm the spirit"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肠通便",
        "en": "Moisten the intestines and unblock the bowels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止汗",
        "en": "Stop sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "补益心血",
        "en": "Supplement Heart blood"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "心血不足，虚烦不眠",
        "en": "Insomnia and vexation due to Heart blood deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "惊悸怔忡，健忘",
        "en": "Palpitations, fright throbbing, and forgetfulness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴虚盗汗",
        "en": "Night sweats from yin deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肠燥便秘，老人产后便秘",
        "en": "Constipation from intestinal dryness, especially in the elderly or postpartum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "小儿惊痫",
        "en": "Childhood fright epilepsy"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "便溏及痰多者不宜。脾虚湿盛者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g；大便溏者用柏子仁霜（去油）以防滑泻。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生柏子仁",
        "method": "去壳生用",
        "effect": "养心安神、润肠通便并重"
      },
      {
        "name": "柏子仁霜",
        "method": "去油制霜",
        "effect": "减其滑润之性，用于便溏而需安神者"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含脂肪油较多，滑肠作用明显，脾虚便溏者宜用霜品。久置易走油变质，当藏之阴凉干燥处。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "柏实，味甘，平。主惊悸，安五脏，益气，除风湿痹。久服令人润泽美色，耳目聪明，不饥不老，轻身延年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "柏科植物侧柏的干燥成熟种仁。归心、肾、大肠经。甘平质润，养心血以安心神，润肠燥以通便秘，尤宜于心血亏虚之虚烦不眠、惊悸健忘，常与酸枣仁相配（天王补心丹、柏子养心丸）。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2307289",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "fatty oil (ca. 14% of seed)",
          "name_zh": "脂肪油",
          "category": "lipid",
          "notes": "responsible for laxative moistening effect"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "saponins",
          "name_zh": "皂苷",
          "category": "saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "volatile oil (containing α-pinene, cedrol)",
          "name_zh": "挥发油",
          "category": "volatile oil"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "柏子仁富含脂肪油、皂苷及挥发油，具有润肠通便、镇静安神作用；动物实验显示其提取物可延长戊巴比妥睡眠时间。",
        "en": "Platycladi Semen is rich in fatty oil, saponins, and volatile components, with emollient laxative and mild sedative/hypnotic effects; extracts prolong pentobarbital-induced sleep in animal studies."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "心阴血不足型失眠、心悸",
          "indication_en": "Insomnia and palpitations from heart yin/blood deficiency",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "老年及产后津亏肠燥便秘",
          "indication_en": "Constipation from fluid deficiency in elderly and postpartum",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载柏子仁用于心血不足之心悸失眠及肠燥便秘，常与酸枣仁、当归同用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky documents use for insomnia/palpitations from heart blood deficiency and dry-intestine constipation, typically paired with suan zao ren and dang gui."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学提到柏子仁油脂含量较高，大便溏泄者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen caution against use in patients with loose stools due to the high fatty-oil content."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "yuan_zhi",
    "slug": "yuan-zhi",
    "name_zh": "远志",
    "name_pinyin": "Yuǎn Zhì",
    "name_en": "Polygala Root",
    "name_latin": "Polygalae Radix",
    "category": "安神药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "安神益智",
        "en": "Calm the spirit and benefit intellect"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛痰开窍",
        "en": "Expel phlegm and open the orifices"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消散痈肿",
        "en": "Disperse and reduce abscesses and swellings"
      },
      {
        "zh": "交通心肾",
        "en": "Communicate Heart and Kidney"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "心肾不交，失眠多梦",
        "en": "Insomnia with dream-disturbed sleep from Heart-Kidney disharmony"
      },
      {
        "zh": "惊悸怔忡，健忘",
        "en": "Palpitations, fright throbbing, and forgetfulness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰阻心窍，癫痫惊狂",
        "en": "Epilepsy and mania from phlegm obstructing the Heart orifices"
      },
      {
        "zh": "咳嗽痰多，痰黏难咯",
        "en": "Cough with copious sticky phlegm difficult to expectorate"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痈疽疮毒，乳房肿痛",
        "en": "Abscesses, sores, and breast swelling with pain"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "凡实热、阴虚火旺者，及有胃炎、胃溃疡者慎服。孕妇慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g；研末服1–3g；制用较为常见以缓其对胃黏膜的刺激。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生远志",
        "method": "去心生用",
        "effect": "祛痰开窍、消痈散肿力强"
      },
      {
        "name": "制远志",
        "method": "甘草水制或蜜炙",
        "effect": "缓和燥性与对胃的刺激，长于安神益智"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含远志皂苷，对胃黏膜有刺激，可引起恶心呕吐，故多用制品。不宜空腹大剂量服用。大剂量可引起溶血及反射性增加支气管腺体分泌。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦，温。主咳逆伤中，补不足，除邪气，利九窍，益智慧，耳目聪明，不忘，强志，倍力。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "远志科植物远志或卵叶远志的干燥根。归心、肾、肺经。辛苦性温，入心肾以交通心肾而安神益智，入肺以祛痰开窍而治咳喘癫痫，为交通心肾、安神定志之要药，《千金方》定志丸、《医学心悟》安神定志丸皆用之。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2108942",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "tenuifolin",
          "name_zh": "细叶远志皂苷",
          "category": "triterpenoid saponin aglycone",
          "notes": "nootropic marker compound"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "onjisaponins A–G",
          "name_zh": "远志皂苷",
          "category": "triterpenoid saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polygalitol",
          "category": "sugar alcohol"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "3,6'-disinapoyl sucrose",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid oligosaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "远志主含三萜皂苷（远志皂苷、细叶远志皂苷），具有镇静安神、改善学习记忆、祛痰及抗抑郁作用；但皂苷对胃黏膜有刺激性，胃炎、溃疡者慎用。",
        "en": "Polygala root contains triterpenoid saponins (onjisaponins, tenuifolin) with sedative, cognition-enhancing, expectorant and antidepressant effects; saponins are gastric irritants, so caution is needed in gastritis or ulcer patients."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "心肾不交之失眠健忘",
          "indication_en": "Insomnia and forgetfulness from lack of heart-kidney communication",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "痰阻心窍之神志异常",
          "indication_en": "Disordered consciousness from phlegm obstructing the heart orifices",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "认知功能减退辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for cognitive decline",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出远志兼通心肾、化痰开窍，为健忘失眠要药。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Yuan Zhi connects heart and kidney and transforms phlegm, a key herb for forgetfulness and insomnia."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述动物实验证实远志皂苷改善学习记忆，相关成分开发为保健品。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite animal studies confirming memory-enhancing effects of onjisaponins, with related compounds developed into supplements."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "long_gu",
    "slug": "long-gu",
    "name_zh": "龙骨",
    "name_pinyin": "Lóng Gǔ",
    "name_en": "Fossilized Vertebrate Bone",
    "name_latin": "Mastodi Ossis Fossilia",
    "category": "安神药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "astringent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "镇惊安神",
        "en": "Settle fright and calm the spirit"
      },
      {
        "zh": "平肝潜阳",
        "en": "Pacify the Liver and subdue yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "收敛固涩",
        "en": "Astringe and secure leakage"
      },
      {
        "zh": "生肌敛疮",
        "en": "Generate flesh and close sores (topical)"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "心神不宁，心悸失眠",
        "en": "Restlessness of spirit with palpitations and insomnia"
      },
      {
        "zh": "惊痫癫狂",
        "en": "Fright epilepsy, mania, and withdrawal"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝阳上亢，头晕目眩",
        "en": "Ascendant Liver yang with dizziness and vertigo"
      },
      {
        "zh": "遗精滑精，崩漏带下",
        "en": "Seminal emission, uterine bleeding, and vaginal discharge"
      },
      {
        "zh": "自汗盗汗",
        "en": "Spontaneous and night sweats"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疮疡久溃不敛（外用）",
        "en": "Chronic non-healing sores (topical)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "湿热积滞者不宜。有实邪者慎用。质重碍胃，脾胃虚弱者久服宜配健脾和胃之品。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 15,
      "max": 30,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服15–30g，宜打碎先煎；外用适量，研末撒或调敷。镇惊安神宜生用，收敛固涩宜煅用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生龙骨",
        "method": "洗净打碎，先煎",
        "effect": "长于镇惊安神、平肝潜阳"
      },
      {
        "name": "煅龙骨",
        "method": "煅制",
        "effect": "收敛固涩作用增强，多用于滑脱诸证及外用敛疮"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "矿物类药，质重难化，宜打碎先煎；久服宜适度配伍健脾和胃之品。煅品慎用于外疡脓液未净之创面以防留邪。现代野外采集龙骨属化石类资源，临床亦可以煅牡蛎部分替代。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主心腹鬼注，精物老魅，咳逆，泄利脓血，女子漏下，癥瘕坚结，小儿热气惊痫。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "古代哺乳动物如象类、犀牛类、三趾马等骨骼的化石。归心、肝、肾经。质重性涩，重可镇怯，涩能固脱，既能重镇安神以治惊悸失眠、癫狂，又能平肝潜阳以治眩晕，兼收敛固涩以治滑脱诸证，常与牡蛎相须为用（桂枝加龙骨牡蛎汤）。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "calcium carbonate",
          "name_zh": "碳酸钙",
          "category": "mineral",
          "notes": "principal component"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "calcium phosphate",
          "name_zh": "磷酸钙",
          "category": "mineral"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "trace elements (Fe, Mg, Sr)",
          "name_zh": "微量元素（铁、镁、锶）",
          "category": "trace minerals"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "龙骨为古脊椎动物化石，主含碳酸钙和磷酸钙，具镇静、中和胃酸、收敛及止血作用。",
        "en": "Dragon bone (fossilized vertebrate bone) consists chiefly of calcium carbonate and phosphate, providing sedative, antacid, astringent, and hemostatic effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "心神不宁、失眠及焦虑",
          "indication_en": "Restlessness, insomnia, and anxiety",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "自汗盗汗与遗精",
          "indication_en": "Spontaneous/night sweats and spermatorrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "胃酸过多及胃溃疡辅助",
          "indication_en": "Hyperacidity and gastric ulcer adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "龙骨质重镇心安神、平肝潜阳、收敛固涩，生用与煅用各有偏重。",
          "note_en": "Heavy and settling — calms the spirit, anchors liver yang, and astringes; raw vs calcined forms have different emphases."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "钙盐中和胃酸并具收敛作用；煅龙骨外用可收敛生肌。",
          "note_en": "Calcium salts neutralize gastric acid and have astringent effects; calcined form applied topically promotes healing."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以外观性状和重金属限量为质量控制指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia relies on macroscopic identification and heavy-metal limits for quality control."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "mu_li",
    "slug": "mu-li",
    "name_zh": "牡蛎",
    "name_pinyin": "Mǔ Lì",
    "name_en": "Oyster Shell",
    "name_latin": "Ostreae Concha",
    "category": "安神药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "salty"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "重镇安神",
        "en": "Heavily settle the spirit"
      },
      {
        "zh": "平肝潜阳",
        "en": "Pacify the Liver and subdue yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "软坚散结",
        "en": "Soften hardness and dissipate nodules"
      },
      {
        "zh": "收敛固涩",
        "en": "Astringe and secure leakage"
      },
      {
        "zh": "制酸止痛",
        "en": "Neutralize acid and alleviate pain"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "心神不安，惊悸失眠",
        "en": "Restlessness with palpitations and insomnia"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝阳上亢，眩晕耳鸣",
        "en": "Ascendant Liver yang with dizziness and tinnitus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痰核瘰疬，瘿瘤癥瘕",
        "en": "Phlegm nodules, scrofula, goiter, and abdominal masses"
      },
      {
        "zh": "自汗盗汗，遗精崩带",
        "en": "Sweating, seminal emission, uterine bleeding, and vaginal discharge"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胃痛吞酸",
        "en": "Epigastric pain with acid regurgitation"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "虚而有寒、肾虚无火、精寒自出者忌用。质重碍胃，脾胃虚弱者久服宜配健脾和胃之品。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 15,
      "max": 30,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服15–30g，宜打碎先煎；制酸止痛宜煅用研末冲服每次1–3g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生牡蛎",
        "method": "洗净打碎，先煎",
        "effect": "长于平肝潜阳、软坚散结"
      },
      {
        "name": "煅牡蛎",
        "method": "煅制",
        "effect": "收敛固涩与制酸止痛作用增强"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "海洋贝壳类矿物药，含碳酸钙，长期大量服用宜监测胃肠功能及钙代谢。过敏体质者少数可见海产品过敏反应。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味咸，平。主伤寒寒热，温疟洒洒，惊恚怒气，除拘缓鼠瘘，女子带下赤白。久服强骨节，杀邪鬼，延年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "牡蛎科动物长牡蛎、大连湾牡蛎或近江牡蛎的贝壳。归肝、胆、肾经。咸寒质重，既能重镇安神以治惊悸失眠，又能平肝潜阳以治眩晕耳鸣，兼软坚散结、收敛固涩，与龙骨相须为用，为仲景桂枝加龙骨牡蛎汤、柴胡加龙骨牡蛎汤之主药。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q207209",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "calcium carbonate",
          "name_zh": "碳酸钙",
          "category": "mineral",
          "notes": "80–95% of shell"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "calcium phosphate",
          "name_zh": "磷酸钙",
          "category": "mineral"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "magnesium carbonate",
          "name_zh": "碳酸镁",
          "category": "mineral"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "trace amino acids and conchiolin",
          "name_zh": "微量氨基酸与贝壳硬蛋白",
          "category": "protein matrix"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "牡蛎壳主含碳酸钙及微量元素，具中和胃酸、镇静安神、软坚散结及收敛固涩作用。",
        "en": "Oyster shell is chiefly calcium carbonate with trace minerals, providing antacid, sedative, soften-hardness, and astringent effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "胃酸过多与消化性溃疡",
          "indication_en": "Hyperacidity and peptic ulcer",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "失眠、心悸、焦虑",
          "indication_en": "Insomnia, palpitation, and anxiety",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "甲状腺肿和淋巴结核（软坚散结）",
          "indication_en": "Goiter and scrofula (softens hardness)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "自汗盗汗与遗精",
          "indication_en": "Spontaneous/night sweats and spermatorrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "碳酸钙中和胃酸并具吸附收敛作用；煅牡蛎钙溶解度高。",
          "note_en": "Calcium carbonate neutralizes gastric acid and has adsorbent-astringent action; calcined oyster shell has higher calcium solubility."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "牡蛎平肝潜阳、重镇安神、软坚散结，煅用敛汗涩精。",
          "note_en": "Anchors liver yang, calms spirit, softens hardness; calcined form astringes sweat and essence."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "与四环素、喹诺酮等药物同服可降低吸收，应间隔 2 小时。",
          "note_en": "Calcium may reduce absorption of tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones — separate dosing by at least 2 hours."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以碳酸钙含量（不少于 94.0%）为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies calcium carbonate content (≥94.0%) as the quality marker."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "shi_chang_pu",
    "slug": "shi-chang-pu",
    "name_zh": "石菖蒲",
    "name_pinyin": "Shí Chāng Pú",
    "name_en": "Grass-leaved Sweetflag Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Acori Tatarinowii Rhizoma",
    "category": "开窍药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "开窍豁痰",
        "en": "Open the orifices and flush phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "醒神益智",
        "en": "Awaken the spirit and benefit intellect"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化湿和胃",
        "en": "Transform damp and harmonize the stomach"
      },
      {
        "zh": "辟秽开郁",
        "en": "Dispel turbidity and relieve constraint"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "痰蒙清窍，神志昏迷",
        "en": "Clouded consciousness from phlegm veiling the orifices"
      },
      {
        "zh": "癫痫惊悸，健忘失眠",
        "en": "Epilepsy, palpitations, forgetfulness, and insomnia"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿阻中焦，脘痞不饥",
        "en": "Damp obstruction in the middle jiao with focal distention and poor appetite"
      },
      {
        "zh": "噤口痢，下痢不食",
        "en": "Lockjaw dysentery with inability to eat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "耳鸣耳聋，头晕健忘",
        "en": "Tinnitus, deafness, dizziness, and forgetfulness"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚阳亢、烦躁汗多、咳嗽吐血、滑精者慎服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g；鲜品加倍。研末入丸散，每次1–2g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生石菖蒲",
        "method": "洗净切段生用",
        "effect": "开窍醒神、化湿辟秽力强"
      },
      {
        "name": "鲜石菖蒲",
        "method": "鲜品捣汁或煎汤",
        "effect": "开窍化痰之力尤胜，用于急症神昏"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含β-细辛醚等挥发油成分，大剂量或久服对肝脏及神经系统有潜在毒性，不宜长期超量服用。孕妇慎用。不宜与镇静类西药合用以防相加作用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "菖蒲，味辛，温。主风寒湿痹，咳逆上气，开心孔，补五脏，通九窍，明耳目，出音声。久服轻身，不忘，不迷惑，延年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "天南星科植物石菖蒲的干燥根茎。归心、胃经。辛香苦温，芳香走窜，既能开心窍、豁痰浊以治神昏癫痫，又能化湿浊、醒脾胃以治湿阻中焦，为开窍宁神、化湿和胃之要药，常与远志、茯苓相配（开心散、安神定志丸）。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q2827594",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "beta-asarone",
          "name_zh": "β-细辛醚",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid (essential oil)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "alpha-asarone",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "eugenol",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "caryophyllene",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "石菖蒲主含挥发油（β-细辛醚、α-细辛醚），具有镇静抗惊、改善记忆及抗抑郁的中枢作用。",
        "en": "Acorus rhizome contains essential oils (alpha- and beta-asarone) with sedative, anticonvulsant, cognition-enhancing and antidepressant-like central actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "健忘痴呆、痰蒙清窍",
          "indication_en": "Forgetfulness and phlegm-clouding of the orifices",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "癫痫风痰阻窍辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunctive use in phlegm-obstruction epilepsy",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "开窍豁痰、醒神益智、化湿开胃，主治痰蒙心窍之神志不清。",
          "note_en": "Opens the orifices, transforms phlegm, and awakens the spirit; principal for phlegm-clouded consciousness."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "β-细辛醚被报告有潜在基因毒性和肝毒性，长期高剂量使用应注意。",
          "note_en": "Beta-asarone has been reported as potentially genotoxic and hepatotoxic; caution with long-term high dosing."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "tian_ma",
    "slug": "tian-ma",
    "name_zh": "天麻",
    "name_pinyin": "Tiān Má",
    "name_en": "Gastrodia Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Gastrodiae Rhizoma",
    "category": "平肝熄风药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "息风止痉",
        "en": "Extinguish wind and stop spasms"
      },
      {
        "zh": "平抑肝阳",
        "en": "Calm and subdue Liver yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛风通络",
        "en": "Dispel wind and unblock the collaterals"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止眩定晕",
        "en": "Stop dizziness and vertigo"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝风内动，惊痫抽搐",
        "en": "Internal Liver wind with convulsions and epileptic seizures"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝阳上亢，头痛眩晕",
        "en": "Liver yang ascending with headache and dizziness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风痰上扰，眩晕头痛",
        "en": "Wind-phlegm disturbing the head causing dizziness and headache"
      },
      {
        "zh": "中风手足不遂，肢体麻木",
        "en": "Wind-stroke with hemiplegia and limb numbness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风湿痹痛，关节屈伸不利",
        "en": "Wind-damp painful obstruction with restricted joint movement"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "气血虚甚者慎用。津液衰少、血虚、阴虚者，非真有风邪者勿用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g；研末冲服每次1–1.5g。本品久煎或后下均可，无毒峻之虞。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生天麻",
        "method": "洗净润透，切薄片，干燥",
        "effect": "息风止痉，平肝潜阳之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "煨天麻",
        "method": "麸煨或纸裹煨制",
        "effect": "缓和药性，增强祛风通络之效"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品药性平和，无毒。但血虚、阴虚而无风邪者慎用，以免助燥伤阴。现代研究偶见过敏反应，应注意观察。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "赤箭，味辛，温。主杀鬼精物、蛊毒、恶气。久服益气力，长阴肥健，轻身增年。一名离母，一名鬼督邮。",
        "source_chapter": "上经·赤箭（即天麻古名）"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "兰科植物天麻的干燥块茎。归肝经。本品甘平柔润，专入肝经，既能平肝息风以治内风诸证，又能祛外风通经络。古称赤箭，《神农本草经》列为上品；李时珍《本草纲目》始定名天麻。为治眩晕头痛、肝风抽搐之要药，无论寒热虚实皆可配伍应用。",
    "description_en": "The dried tuber of Gastrodia elata (Orchidaceae). Enters the Liver meridian. Sweet and neutral, it both extinguishes internal wind and dispels external wind, making it a key herb for dizziness, headache, convulsions, and wind-stroke regardless of cold/heat or deficiency/excess presentation.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "gastrodin",
          "name_zh": "天麻素",
          "category": "phenolic glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "4-hydroxybenzyl alcohol",
          "name_zh": "对羟基苄醇",
          "category": "phenolic aglycone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "vanillyl alcohol",
          "category": "phenolic"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "parishins A/B",
          "category": "citric acid-benzyl ester"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "天麻主含天麻素及其苷元对羟基苄醇，具有抗惊厥、镇静、改善脑循环及神经保护作用。",
        "en": "Gastrodia rhizome contains gastrodin and its aglycone 4-hydroxybenzyl alcohol, with anticonvulsant, sedative, cerebral circulation-enhancing and neuroprotective effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "眩晕头痛（尤其椎-基底动脉供血不足）",
          "indication_en": "Vertigo and headache, including vertebrobasilar insufficiency",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "癫痫辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunctive therapy for epilepsy",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "中风后遗症、肢体麻木",
          "indication_en": "Post-stroke sequelae with limb numbness",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "平肝熄风、止痉通络，主治肝风内动之眩晕、抽搐、头痛。",
          "note_en": "Calms Liver wind, arrests convulsions, and unblocks channels; principal for Liver-wind vertigo, convulsions and headache."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "天麻素注射液及口服制剂在中国广泛用于眩晕和头痛，有临床研究支持。",
          "note_en": "Gastrodin injection and oral preparations are widely used in China for vertigo and headache with supporting clinical studies."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以天麻素和对羟基苄醇总量（不得少于0.25%）为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia requires the combined content of gastrodin plus 4-hydroxybenzyl alcohol to be not less than 0.25%."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "gou_teng",
    "slug": "gou-teng",
    "name_zh": "钩藤",
    "name_pinyin": "Gōu Téng",
    "name_en": "Uncaria Stem with Hooks",
    "name_latin": "Uncariae Ramulus cum Uncis",
    "category": "平肝熄风药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "息风止痉",
        "en": "Extinguish wind and stop spasms"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热平肝",
        "en": "Clear heat and pacify the Liver"
      },
      {
        "zh": "凉肝定惊",
        "en": "Cool the Liver and calm fright"
      },
      {
        "zh": "舒筋活络",
        "en": "Relax sinews and free the collaterals"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝风内动，惊痫抽搐",
        "en": "Stirring of Liver wind with convulsions and seizures"
      },
      {
        "zh": "小儿急惊风，高热抽搐",
        "en": "Acute childhood convulsions with high fever"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝阳上亢，头痛眩晕",
        "en": "Liver yang ascendant with headache and dizziness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝火上炎，头胀头痛",
        "en": "Liver fire flaring upward with throbbing headache"
      },
      {
        "zh": "妊娠子痫，胎动不安",
        "en": "Eclampsia of pregnancy and restless fetus"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "无实热及肝阳上亢者不宜使用；脾胃虚寒者慎用。气血虚而非有热者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–12g；不宜久煎，应后下，煎煮时间不超过20分钟，以免有效成分（钩藤碱）破坏而降低降压息风之效。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生钩藤",
        "method": "拣净杂质，剪去残茎，干燥",
        "effect": "息风止痉，清热平肝，多生用后下"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品所含钩藤碱久煎易破坏，故必须后下。降压作用明确，与降压药并用应监测血压，避免低血压。无明显毒性，但脾胃虚寒者过量可致便溏。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": null,
        "classification": "草部",
        "passage": "钩藤，微寒，无毒。主小儿寒热，十二惊痫。",
        "source_chapter": "《名医别录》（陶弘景辑录），钩藤始见于此书。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "茜草科植物钩藤、大叶钩藤、毛钩藤、华钩藤或无柄果钩藤的干燥带钩茎枝。归肝、心包经。本品甘凉，清轻透达，既清肝热以平肝阳，又息肝风以止惊搐，为治疗肝热生风、热极动风之要药。常与天麻相须为用，是天麻钩藤饮、羚角钩藤汤之主药。",
    "description_en": "The dried hook-bearing stem of Uncaria rhynchophylla and related species (Rubiaceae). Enters the Liver and Pericardium meridians. Sweet and cool, it clears Liver heat, pacifies Liver yang, and extinguishes Liver wind, making it a key herb for childhood convulsions, hypertension, and wind-stirring patterns. Commonly paired with tian ma in Tian Ma Gou Teng Yin and Ling Jiao Gou Teng Tang.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "rhynchophylline",
          "name_zh": "钩藤碱",
          "category": "indole alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "isorhynchophylline",
          "name_zh": "异钩藤碱",
          "category": "indole alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "hirsutine",
          "category": "indole alkaloid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "钩藤主含吲哚类生物碱（钩藤碱、异钩藤碱、毛钩藤碱），药理证实其降压、镇静、抗惊厥、神经保护及钙拮抗作用。",
        "en": "Gouteng contains indole alkaloids (rhynchophylline, isorhynchophylline, hirsutine); pharmacology confirms antihypertensive, sedative, anticonvulsant, neuroprotective and calcium-antagonist actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "高血压（肝阳上亢型）",
          "indication_en": "Hypertension (liver-yang ascendant pattern)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "小儿惊风、癫痫辅助",
          "indication_en": "Childhood convulsions and epilepsy (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "血管性痴呆、帕金森病神经保护",
          "indication_en": "Vascular dementia and Parkinson neuroprotection",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以钩藤碱与异钩藤碱作为含量测定指标；久煎可破坏有效成分，入药宜后下。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses rhynchophylline and isorhynchophylline as assay markers; prolonged boiling destroys actives—add near end of decoction."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "天麻钩藤饮为经典平肝熄风方，广泛用于高血压与头痛。",
          "note_en": "Tianma Gouteng Yin is a classical liver-calming wind-extinguishing formula widely used for hypertension and headache."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "无实热、肝火、肝风者慎用；无毒性报告。",
          "note_en": "Use cautiously without heat or wind signs; generally low toxicity."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "dai_zhe_shi",
    "slug": "dai-zhe-shi",
    "name_zh": "代赭石",
    "name_pinyin": "Dài Zhě Shí",
    "name_en": "Hematite",
    "name_latin": "Haematitum",
    "category": "平肝熄风药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "平肝潜阳",
        "en": "Pacify the Liver and subdue ascendant yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "重镇降逆",
        "en": "Heavily settle and direct rebellious qi downward"
      },
      {
        "zh": "凉血止血",
        "en": "Cool blood and stop bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "降胃止呕",
        "en": "Direct Stomach qi downward and stop vomiting"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝阳上亢，头晕目眩",
        "en": "Liver yang ascending with dizziness and vertigo"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气逆喘息，呕吐呃逆",
        "en": "Rebellious qi with wheezing, vomiting, and hiccup"
      },
      {
        "zh": "噫气频作，胃气上逆",
        "en": "Frequent belching from upward-rebelling Stomach qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血热妄行，吐血衄血",
        "en": "Reckless movement of hot blood with hematemesis and epistaxis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "崩漏下血",
        "en": "Uterine flooding and spotting"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇慎用。中气不足、下元虚寒者忌用。本品质重，脾胃虚弱者不宜久服。所含微量铅、砷，故不宜过量长期服用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 30,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服9–30g，宜打碎先煎30分钟以上，便于有效成分析出；入丸散每次1–3g。降逆平肝宜生用，止血宜煅用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生代赭石",
        "method": "洗净，砸碎，先煎",
        "effect": "平肝潜阳，重镇降逆之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "煅代赭石",
        "method": "煅红，醋淬",
        "effect": "增强收敛止血之功，便于粉碎入药"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品为氧化铁矿物，含微量铅、砷等重金属，孕妇慎用，不宜长期大量服用，以防蓄积中毒。质重沉降，中气虚弱、脾胃虚寒者慎用。必须先煎以利有效成分析出。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "代赭，味苦，寒。主鬼注、贼风、蛊毒，杀精物恶鬼，腹中毒邪气，女子赤沃漏下。",
        "source_chapter": "下经·代赭"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "氧化物类矿物刚玉族赤铁矿的矿石。归肝、心、肺、胃经。本品味苦性寒，质重沉降，为重镇降逆之要药。既能平肝潜阳以治眩晕，又能降胃止呕、降肺平喘，更能凉血止血。张锡纯《医学衷中参西录》尤善用之，配旋覆花为旋覆代赭汤之主药。",
    "description_en": "Hematite ore (iron oxide mineral). Enters the Liver, Heart, Lung, and Stomach meridians. Bitter, cold, and heavy, it is the principal heavy-settling herb for descending rebellious qi: it pacifies Liver yang, stops vomiting and hiccup, calms wheezing, and cools blood to stop bleeding. A key ingredient in Xuan Fu Dai Zhe Tang.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "hematite (ferric oxide, Fe2O3)",
          "name_zh": "赤铁矿（三氧化二铁）",
          "category": "mineral / iron oxide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "trace manganese, magnesium, aluminum, silicon",
          "category": "accessory minerals"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "代赭石为天然赤铁矿，主含三氧化二铁，现代药理示其具镇静、抗胃酸与轻度补铁作用；煎液含少量可溶性铁与微量元素。",
        "en": "Daizheshi is natural hematite composed mainly of ferric oxide; modern studies show sedative, gastric acid neutralizing and mild iron-supplementing effects, with small amounts of soluble iron and trace elements entering decoction."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "眩晕、肝阳上亢型高血压辅助",
          "indication_en": "Vertigo and liver-yang ascendant hypertension (adjunctive)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "呃逆、嗳气、反胃",
          "indication_en": "Hiccup, belching and reflux",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "缺铁性贫血辅助",
          "indication_en": "Iron-deficiency anemia (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定代赭石以三氧化二铁（Fe2O3）含量计不得少于 45.0%，宜先煎。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia requires Fe2O3 content of not less than 45.0%; decoct first."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "本草传统认为其重镇降逆、平肝潜阳，现代应用包括镇吐与止呃。",
          "note_en": "Classically heavy and descending, used to subdue rebellious qi and anchor liver yang; modern use includes antiemetic and antihiccup roles."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "因含微量砷、铅等杂质，长期大剂量应慎用，孕妇忌服。",
          "note_en": "May contain trace arsenic or lead impurities; avoid long-term high doses and contraindicated in pregnancy."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "quan_xie",
    "slug": "quan-xie",
    "name_zh": "全蝎",
    "name_pinyin": "Quán Xiē",
    "name_en": "Scorpion",
    "name_latin": "Scorpio (Buthus martensii)",
    "category": "平肝熄风药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "息风镇痉",
        "en": "Extinguish wind and stop convulsions"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通络止痛",
        "en": "Unblock the collaterals and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "攻毒散结",
        "en": "Attack toxin and dissipate nodules"
      },
      {
        "zh": "搜风剔络",
        "en": "Search out wind and scour the collaterals"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝风内动，惊痫抽搐",
        "en": "Internal Liver wind with seizures and convulsions"
      },
      {
        "zh": "中风口眼歪斜，半身不遂",
        "en": "Wind-stroke with facial deviation and hemiplegia"
      },
      {
        "zh": "破伤风，角弓反张",
        "en": "Tetanus with opisthotonos"
      },
      {
        "zh": "顽固性头痛，偏正头风",
        "en": "Stubborn migraines and chronic headache"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风湿顽痹，关节疼痛",
        "en": "Stubborn wind-damp painful obstruction with joint pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疮疡瘰疬，痰核结毒",
        "en": "Sores, scrofula, and phlegm-toxin nodules"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "本品有毒，孕妇禁用。血虚生风者慎用。不宜过量服用，以防中毒。心肝血虚而无风者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 6,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–6g；研末冲服，每次0.6–1g，宜入丸散；外用适量。本品有毒，剂量不可过大，应严格控制。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "全蝎",
        "method": "春末至秋初捕捉，洗净，置沸盐水中煮至全身僵硬，捞出，置阴凉处干燥",
        "effect": "降低毒性，便于贮藏与配伍"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品含蝎毒素（类神经毒），有毒，过量可致呼吸麻痹、抽搐、血压升高甚至死亡。必须严格控制剂量，不宜久服。孕妇禁用。儿童及肝肾功能不全者慎用。研末服用更要严控用量。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": null,
        "classification": "虫部",
        "passage": "蝎，味甘辛，有毒。主诸风瘾疹及中风半身不遂，口眼喎斜，语涩，手足抽掣。",
        "source_chapter": "《开宝本草》（开宝六年973），全蝎入药始载于此。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "钳蝎科动物东亚钳蝎的干燥体。归肝经。本品辛平有毒，专入肝经，善搜风通络、息风止痉，为治痉挛抽搐之要药。无论外风内风，新病久病，皆可应用。常与蜈蚣相须为用，组成止痉散。其攻毒散结之力，又可治疮疡瘰疬、顽固头痛。",
    "description_en": "The dried body of Buthus martensii (scorpion). Enters the Liver meridian. Pungent, neutral, and toxic, it specifically enters the Liver to extinguish wind, stop convulsions, and search out wind from the collaterals. A primary herb for spasms whether from external or internal wind, acute or chronic. Commonly paired with wu gong (centipede) in Zhi Jing San.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "buthotoxin (scorpion venom peptides)",
          "name_zh": "蝎毒",
          "category": "neurotoxic peptide mixture",
          "notes": "heat-labile; whole dried animal used in TCM"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "chlorotoxin-like peptides",
          "category": "short-chain neurotoxin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "taurine and amino acids",
          "category": "amino acid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "全蝎为东亚钳蝎干燥体，主含神经毒性多肽，现代研究显示抗癫痫、抗肿瘤及镇痛的临床前活性，但毒性明显，须严格控制剂量。",
        "en": "Whole scorpion (Buthus martensii) contains a mixture of neurotoxic peptides with preclinical antiepileptic, antitumor, and analgesic activity; toxicity is notable and dosing must be strictly controlled."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "小儿惊风、破伤风抽搐",
          "indication_en": "Pediatric convulsions and tetanic spasms",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "中风后半身不遂、顽固性头痛",
          "indication_en": "Post-stroke hemiplegia and refractory headache",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "神经病理性疼痛（临床前）",
          "indication_en": "Neuropathic pain (preclinical)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载全蝎有毒，常用量仅 1–3 g（入煎剂），散剂更小；过量可致呼吸麻痹、溶血。",
          "note_en": "Bensky lists whole scorpion as toxic, usual decoction dose only 1–3 g (powder smaller); overdose can cause respiratory paralysis and hemolysis."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述蝎毒肽类对癫痫动物模型有效，但治疗窗窄，孕妇及血虚生风者禁用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize efficacy of scorpion toxin peptides in animal models of epilepsy, with a narrow therapeutic window; contraindicated in pregnancy and blood-deficiency wind."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "wu_gong",
    "slug": "wu-gong",
    "name_zh": "蜈蚣",
    "name_pinyin": "Wú Gōng",
    "name_en": "Centipede",
    "name_latin": "Scolopendra",
    "category": "平肝熄风药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "息风止痉",
        "en": "Extinguish wind and stop spasms"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通络止痛",
        "en": "Unblock the collaterals and relieve pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "攻毒散结",
        "en": "Attack toxin and dissipate nodules"
      },
      {
        "zh": "搜风通痹",
        "en": "Search out wind and free painful obstruction"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝风内动，惊痫抽搐",
        "en": "Internal Liver wind with seizures and convulsions"
      },
      {
        "zh": "小儿急慢惊风",
        "en": "Acute and chronic childhood convulsions"
      },
      {
        "zh": "破伤风证，痉挛角弓反张",
        "en": "Tetanus with opisthotonos and rigidity"
      },
      {
        "zh": "中风口眼歪斜，半身不遂",
        "en": "Wind-stroke with facial paralysis and hemiplegia"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风湿顽痹，肢节疼痛",
        "en": "Stubborn wind-damp painful obstruction"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疮疡肿毒，瘰疬结核，毒蛇咬伤",
        "en": "Sores, scrofula, tubercular lesions, and snakebite"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "本品有毒，孕妇禁用。血虚生风者及阴虚血燥者慎用。不可过量。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 5,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–5g（约1–3条）；研末冲服，每次0.6–1g。外用适量，研末调敷。本品有毒，应严格控制剂量。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "蜈蚣",
        "method": "春夏捕捉，竹片插入头尾，绷直晒干或烘干",
        "effect": "便于贮藏，去除部分毒性"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品含组胺样物质及溶血蛋白质，有毒。过量可致溶血、过敏、肝肾损害。孕妇禁用。心肝血虚者慎用。临床使用应严格控制剂量，不可久服。研末服用更须谨慎。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "蜈蚣，味辛，温。主鬼注蛊毒，啖诸蛇虫鱼毒，杀鬼物老精温疟，去三虫。",
        "source_chapter": "下经·蜈蚣"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蜈蚣科动物少棘巨蜈蚣的干燥体。归肝经。本品辛温有毒，性善走窜，搜风通络之力甚强，与全蝎相须为用，为治疗痉挛抽搐、顽固头痛、风湿顽痹之常用药对（止痉散）。又能攻毒散结，治瘰疬、毒蛇咬伤。",
    "description_en": "The dried body of Scolopendra subspinipes (centipede). Enters the Liver meridian. Pungent, warm, and toxic, it is strongly mobilizing and excels at searching out wind and unblocking the collaterals. Often paired with quan xie (scorpion) in Zhi Jing San for convulsions, stubborn headaches, and wind-damp impediment. Also attacks toxin to treat scrofula and snakebite.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "histamine-like toxin",
          "name_zh": "组胺样毒素",
          "category": "biogenic amine"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "hemolytic proteins",
          "category": "peptide/protein"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "scolopendrine (venom peptides)",
          "category": "venom peptide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "fatty acids and amino acids",
          "category": "lipid/amino acid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "蜈蚣为整体虫类药，含组胺样物质及多种蛋白毒素，具有抗惊、镇痛、抗肿瘤研究等活性，有毒性需控制剂量。",
        "en": "Scolopendra (whole centipede) contains histamine-like toxins and venom peptides, with anticonvulsant, analgesic and investigational antitumor effects; it is toxic and requires dose control."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝风抽搐、破伤风、小儿惊风",
          "indication_en": "Liver-wind convulsions, tetanus and childhood convulsions",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "顽固性头痛、风湿痹痛",
          "indication_en": "Intractable headache and wind-damp painful obstruction",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "有毒品种，祛风止痉、通络止痛、攻毒散结；孕妇禁用。",
          "note_en": "Toxic substance; extinguishes wind, arrests spasm, unblocks collaterals and resolves toxic accumulations; contraindicated in pregnancy."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》列为毒性中药，规定用量通常3–5g，研末吞服0.6–1g。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists it as a toxic medicinal, with typical dosage of 3–5 g, or 0.6–1 g powdered."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "jiang_can",
    "slug": "jiang-can",
    "name_zh": "僵蚕",
    "name_pinyin": "Jiāng Cán",
    "name_en": "Stiff Silkworm",
    "name_latin": "Bombyx Batryticatus",
    "category": "平肝熄风药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "salty",
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "息风止痉",
        "en": "Extinguish wind and stop convulsions"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛风止痛",
        "en": "Dispel wind and relieve pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化痰散结",
        "en": "Transform phlegm and dissipate nodules"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解毒利咽",
        "en": "Resolve toxin and benefit the throat"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝风内动夹痰，惊痫抽搐",
        "en": "Internal Liver wind with phlegm causing seizures and convulsions"
      },
      {
        "zh": "中风口眼歪斜",
        "en": "Wind-stroke with facial deviation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风热头痛、目赤、咽喉肿痛",
        "en": "Wind-heat headache, red eyes, and sore swollen throat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风疹瘙痒",
        "en": "Wind rash with itching"
      },
      {
        "zh": "瘰疬痰核，发颐丹毒",
        "en": "Scrofula, phlegm nodules, mumps, and erysipelas"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "心虚不宁、血虚生风者慎用。无风邪而属虚火者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g；研末吞服，每次1–1.5g。散风热宜生用，余皆炒用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生僵蚕",
        "method": "拣净杂质，洗净干燥",
        "effect": "祛风止痉，化痰散结，疏散风热之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒僵蚕",
        "method": "麸炒至黄色",
        "effect": "缓和药性，矫正气味，便于内服"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品系蚕受白僵菌感染而僵死的虫体，含菌丝及代谢产物，少数人可有过敏反应。性味平和，但血虚发痉者不宜单用。质量以条直、色白、断面平滑者为佳。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "白僵蚕，味咸。主小儿惊痫夜啼，去三虫，灭黑黯，令人面色好，男子阴疡病。",
        "source_chapter": "中经·白僵蚕"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蚕蛾科昆虫家蚕的幼虫感染白僵菌而僵死的干燥体。归肝、肺、胃经。本品咸辛平，既能息肝风以止惊搐，又能祛外风、化痰热以疗头面诸疾。其化痰散结之功，可治瘰疬痰核。常配伍全蝎、蜈蚣、天麻治痉挛抽搐；配伍桔梗、薄荷治咽喉肿痛。",
    "description_en": "The dried body of silkworm larvae (Bombyx mori) that have died of infection by Beauveria bassiana fungus. Enters the Liver, Lung, and Stomach meridians. Salty, pungent, and neutral, it both extinguishes internal Liver wind and dispels external wind-heat, while transforming phlegm and dissipating nodules. Used for convulsions, facial paralysis, sore throat, and scrofula.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "protein and amino acids",
          "name_zh": "蛋白质与氨基酸",
          "category": "protein"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ammonium oxalate",
          "name_zh": "草酸铵",
          "category": "organic salt"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "beauvericin (from Beauveria bassiana)",
          "name_zh": "白僵菌素",
          "category": "cyclodepsipeptide",
          "notes": "fungal metabolite from Beauveria bassiana"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "fatty acids",
          "name_zh": "脂肪酸",
          "category": "lipid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "僵蚕为白僵菌感染家蚕干燥体，含蛋白质、草酸铵和真菌代谢产物，具抗惊厥、抗凝及抗菌作用。",
        "en": "Silkworm infected by Beauveria bassiana contains proteins, ammonium oxalate, and fungal metabolites with anticonvulsant, anticoagulant, and antimicrobial activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "小儿惊风抽搐辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for childhood convulsions",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "中风后语言障碍与面神经麻痹辅助",
          "indication_en": "Post-stroke speech disorder and facial palsy adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "僵蚕息风止痉、化痰散结，用于惊痫、破伤风、中风失语。",
          "note_en": "Extinguishes wind, stops spasm, and dissipates phlegm-nodules; used for epilepsy, tetanus, and post-stroke aphasia."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "煎剂具抗惊厥与抗凝活性；白僵菌素显示体外抗菌作用。",
          "note_en": "Decoction shows anticonvulsant and anticoagulant activity; beauvericin exhibits in vitro antimicrobial effect."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以外观性状及总灰分为主要质量控制指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia relies on macroscopic identification and total-ash limits as quality controls."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "di_long",
    "slug": "di-long",
    "name_zh": "地龙",
    "name_pinyin": "Dì Lóng",
    "name_en": "Earthworm",
    "name_latin": "Pheretima",
    "category": "平肝熄风药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "salty"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热息风",
        "en": "Clear heat and extinguish wind"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通络止痉",
        "en": "Unblock the collaterals and stop convulsions"
      },
      {
        "zh": "平喘利尿",
        "en": "Calm wheezing and promote urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通经活络",
        "en": "Free the channels and quicken the collaterals"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "高热神昏，惊痫抽搐",
        "en": "High fever with delirium, seizures, and convulsions"
      },
      {
        "zh": "中风半身不遂，气虚血瘀",
        "en": "Wind-stroke hemiplegia from qi deficiency with blood stasis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺热哮喘，喘息咳嗽",
        "en": "Wheezing and asthma due to Lung heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热结膀胱，小便不利",
        "en": "Heat accumulation in Bladder with dysuria"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风湿热痹，关节红肿热痛",
        "en": "Wind-damp-heat painful obstruction with red, swollen, hot joints"
      },
      {
        "zh": "高血压头痛眩晕",
        "en": "Headache and dizziness from hypertension"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "本品性寒，脾胃虚寒者慎用。阳虚无热者及孕妇慎用。寒证抽搐者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服5–10g；研末吞服，每次1–2g；鲜品10–20g。外用适量。性寒，脾胃虚寒者不宜久服。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "广地龙",
        "method": "夏秋捕捉，剖腹去内脏，洗净泥土，晒干或低温干燥",
        "effect": "息风通络，清热平喘"
      },
      {
        "name": "沪地龙",
        "method": "捕捉后用草木灰呛死，剖腹除去内脏，洗净晒干",
        "effect": "通络利尿，作用类同广地龙"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品性咸寒，脾胃虚寒及孕妇慎用，无热之抽搐者忌用。少数人服用后可有过敏反应或胃肠不适。补阳还五汤中常用以通络治半身不遂。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "下品",
        "passage": "白颈蚯蚓，味咸，寒。主蛇瘕，去三虫，伏尸鬼注蛊毒，杀长虫。",
        "source_chapter": "下经·白颈蚯蚓（即地龙）"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "钜蚓科动物参环毛蚓（广地龙）或缟蚯蚓等的干燥体。归肝、脾、膀胱经。本品咸寒走下，既能清热息风以治惊痫抽搐、热极生风，又能通络平喘、利尿降压。是王清任《医林改错》补阳还五汤治疗中风偏瘫之要药。",
    "description_en": "The dried body of Pheretima aspergillum and related earthworm species. Enters the Liver, Spleen, and Bladder meridians. Salty and cold, it clears heat and extinguishes wind for convulsions arising from extreme heat, unblocks the collaterals for wind-stroke hemiplegia, calms wheezing in Lung heat asthma, and promotes urination. A key herb in Wang Qing-ren's Bu Yang Huan Wu Tang.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "lumbrokinase (fibrinolytic enzymes)",
          "name_zh": "蚓激酶",
          "category": "serine protease complex"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "lumbritin",
          "category": "protein"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "hypoxanthine",
          "name_zh": "次黄嘌呤",
          "category": "purine"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "地龙含蚓激酶（一组纤溶酶）、次黄嘌呤与多种氨基酸，药理证实其溶栓、抗凝、降压、解痉平喘与抗惊厥作用。",
        "en": "Dilong contains lumbrokinase (a family of fibrinolytic enzymes), hypoxanthine and amino acids; pharmacology confirms thrombolytic, anticoagulant, antihypertensive, bronchodilatory and anticonvulsant activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "缺血性脑卒中及后遗症",
          "indication_en": "Ischemic stroke and sequelae",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "支气管哮喘",
          "indication_en": "Bronchial asthma",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "高血压辅助",
          "indication_en": "Hypertension (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》收录地龙原粉及蚓激酶制剂（如蚓激酶肠溶胶囊）用于缺血性心脑血管疾病。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists dilong powder and lumbrokinase enteric capsules for ischemic cardiovascular-cerebrovascular disease."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "热证惊风、中风偏瘫及哮喘为主要传统适应症。",
          "note_en": "Traditional indications include heat-pattern convulsions, poststroke hemiplegia and asthma."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "与抗凝、抗血小板药物合用可能增加出血风险。",
          "note_en": "May increase bleeding risk when combined with anticoagulants or antiplatelet agents."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "bing_pian",
    "slug": "bing-pian",
    "name_zh": "冰片",
    "name_pinyin": "Bīng Piàn",
    "name_en": "Borneol",
    "name_latin": "Borneolum Syntheticum",
    "category": "开窍药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "开窍醒神",
        "en": "Open the orifices and revive the spirit"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热止痛",
        "en": "Clear heat and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消肿明目",
        "en": "Reduce swelling and brighten the eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "防腐生肌",
        "en": "Prevent putrefaction and generate flesh"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "热病神昏，痰热内闭",
        "en": "Loss of consciousness from febrile disease with phlegm-heat blocking the orifices"
      },
      {
        "zh": "中风痰厥，惊风窍闭",
        "en": "Wind-stroke with phlegm collapse and orifice closure"
      },
      {
        "zh": "目赤肿痛，喉痹口疮",
        "en": "Red swollen painful eyes, throat painful obstruction, and mouth sores"
      },
      {
        "zh": "疮疡肿痛，溃后不敛",
        "en": "Sores and ulcers with swelling, pain, or non-healing after rupture"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胸痹心痛，气滞血瘀",
        "en": "Chest impediment and heart pain from qi stagnation and blood stasis"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "本品辛香走窜，开泄力强，气血阴阳虚衰而无邪闭者禁用；孕妇禁用。久服耗气伤阴。寒闭神昏须配伍温开药使用，不宜单用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 0.03,
      "max": 0.1,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "入丸散每次0.03–0.1g，不入煎剂（受热升华失效）。外用研末撒或调敷适量。剂量极小，须严格控制。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "合成冰片",
        "method": "由樟脑、松节油等经化学方法合成所得",
        "effect": "开窍醒神，清热止痛，作用类同天然龙脑冰片"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品辛香走窜，为强力开窍药，孕妇禁用。气血亏虚而无邪闭实证者忌用，以免耗气伤正。剂量极微，超量可致恶心呕吐、头晕、过敏。不入煎剂，因受热挥发升华即失效。心肌梗死急救常用含冰片之苏合香丸、安宫牛黄丸。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": null,
        "classification": "木部",
        "passage": "龙脑香及膏香，味辛苦，微寒，无毒。主心腹邪气，风湿积聚，耳聋。明目，去目赤肤翳。",
        "source_chapter": "《新修本草》（唐·苏敬等，659年）；李时珍《本草纲目·木部》龙脑香条详述其开窍止痛之用。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "由樟脑、松节油等化学合成所得的右旋龙脑或异龙脑。归心、脾、肺经。本品辛苦微寒，气芳香走窜，为开窍醒神、清热止痛之要药，与麝香同为凉开代表药。常用于热闭神昏，配麝香、牛黄等组成安宫牛黄丸、至宝丹；外用治目赤喉痹、疮疡溃烂；现代亦用于心绞痛急救（速效救心丸）。",
    "description_en": "Synthetic borneol (d-borneol or isoborneol), produced from camphor and turpentine. Enters the Heart, Spleen, and Lung meridians. Pungent, bitter, and slightly cool, with intensely aromatic and mobilizing qualities, it is a key cool-opening herb that opens the orifices, revives consciousness, clears heat, and stops pain. Used in Angong Niuhuang Wan and Zhibao Dan for febrile coma; topically for red eyes, sore throat, and ulcers; and in modern emergency formulas for angina.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "d-borneol",
          "name_zh": "右旋龙脑",
          "category": "bicyclic monoterpene",
          "notes": "principal constituent of natural Bing Pian"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "isoborneol",
          "name_zh": "异龙脑",
          "category": "monoterpene",
          "notes": "component of synthetic camphor-derived product"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "冰片主要成分为右旋龙脑及异龙脑，具有局部麻醉、抗炎、抗菌及开窍醒神作用；现代研究显示其可短暂开放血脑屏障，增强中枢药物递送。",
        "en": "Borneolum consists primarily of d-borneol with some isoborneol, providing local anesthetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and orifice-opening activity; modern studies demonstrate transient blood-brain barrier modulation that enhances CNS drug delivery."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "中风昏迷的急救开窍（安宫牛黄丸组分）",
          "indication_en": "Stroke coma emergency resuscitation (component of An Gong Niu Huang Wan)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "口腔溃疡、咽喉肿痛（外用）",
          "indication_en": "Aphthous ulcers and sore throat (topical)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "冠心病心绞痛（复方丹参滴丸等制剂）",
          "indication_en": "Coronary artery disease with angina (compound danshen preparations)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出冰片为开窍药，多入丸散或外用，不宜煎煮，因其易挥发升华。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that Bing Pian is an orifice-opening herb, used in pills, powders, or externally rather than decocted, due to its volatility."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学提到冰片可短暂开放血脑屏障，在中枢递送研究中作为佐剂被广泛探讨。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that borneol transiently opens the blood-brain barrier and has been widely studied as an adjuvant for CNS drug delivery."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "yin_yang_huo",
    "slug": "yin-yang-huo",
    "name_zh": "淫羊藿",
    "name_pinyin": "Yín Yáng Huò",
    "name_en": "Epimedium",
    "name_latin": "Epimedii Folium",
    "category": "补阳药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补肾壮阳",
        "en": "Tonify the Kidney and fortify yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "强筋健骨",
        "en": "Strengthen the sinews and bones"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛风除湿",
        "en": "Dispel wind and eliminate dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温肾助阳益精",
        "en": "Warm the Kidney, assist yang, and augment essence"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肾阳虚衰，阳痿遗精",
        "en": "Kidney yang deficiency with impotence and seminal emission"
      },
      {
        "zh": "腰膝酸软无力",
        "en": "Soreness and weakness of the lower back and knees"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风寒湿痹，肢体麻木拘挛",
        "en": "Wind-cold-damp bi syndrome with numbness and contracture of the limbs"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宫冷不孕，月经不调",
        "en": "Infertility from cold womb and irregular menstruation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾虚喘咳",
        "en": "Wheezing and cough due to Kidney deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "更年期高血压、骨质疏松",
        "en": "Menopausal hypertension and osteoporosis"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚火旺者忌服。相火易动、梦遗滑精及阳事易举者不宜。久服或过量可致口干、鼻衄、头晕等动火伤阴之弊。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–10g。亦可浸酒、熬膏或入丸散。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生淫羊藿",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "祛风除湿之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "炙淫羊藿",
        "pinyin": "Zhì Yín Yáng Huò",
        "method": "羊脂油炙",
        "effect": "增强补肾壮阳之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "属温燥之品，阴虚火旺者忌用。现代研究显示有一定肝毒性报道，不宜长期超量服用，肝功能异常者慎用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味辛，寒。主阴痿绝伤，茎中痛，利小便，益气力，强志。一名刚前。生山谷。"
      },
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "passage": "淫羊藿，味甘气香，性温不寒，能益精气，乃手足阳明、三焦、命门药也，真阳不足者宜之。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "小檗科植物淫羊藿、箭叶淫羊藿、柔毛淫羊藿或朝鲜淫羊藿的干燥叶。归肝、肾经。又名仙灵脾。为温补肾阳之要药，善治肾阳虚衰之阳痿遗精、腰膝痿软；兼能祛风湿、强筋骨，治风寒湿痹。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "icariin",
          "name_zh": "淫羊藿苷",
          "category": "prenylated flavonoid glycoside",
          "notes": "principal marker; PDE5 inhibitory and bone-anabolic preclinical activities"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "epimedin A, B, C",
          "name_zh": "朝藿定 A/B/C",
          "category": "prenylated flavonoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "icariside II",
          "category": "flavonoid aglycone derivative"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "desmethylicaritin",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "淫羊藿主含淫羊藿苷及朝藿定等异戊烯基黄酮类成分，具有拟雄激素样、抑制 PDE5、促进成骨、免疫调节及心血管保护作用。",
        "en": "Epimedium contains prenylated flavonoids including icariin and epimedins, exhibiting androgen-like, PDE5-inhibitory, osteogenic, immunomodulatory and cardiovascular-protective actions."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肾阳虚骨质疏松辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for kidney yang-deficient osteoporosis",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "阳痿、性功能减退辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for erectile dysfunction and reduced sexual function",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "风湿痹痛",
          "indication_en": "Wind-damp painful obstruction",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述淫羊藿苷体外显示 PDE5 抑制活性，提示与西地那非相似作用机制。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite in vitro PDE5 inhibition by icariin, suggesting a sildenafil-like mechanism."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以淫羊藿苷为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses icariin as the assay marker."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 提示淫羊藿温燥，阴虚火旺者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky cautions that Yin Yang Huo is warming and drying; use with care in yin deficiency with flaring fire."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "ba_ji_tian",
    "slug": "ba-ji-tian",
    "name_zh": "巴戟天",
    "name_pinyin": "Bā Jǐ Tiān",
    "name_en": "Morinda Root",
    "name_latin": "Morindae Officinalis Radix",
    "category": "补阳药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补肾助阳",
        "en": "Tonify the Kidney and assist yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "强筋壮骨",
        "en": "Strengthen the sinews and bones"
      },
      {
        "zh": "祛风除湿",
        "en": "Dispel wind and eliminate dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "暖宫止带",
        "en": "Warm the womb and check vaginal discharge"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肾阳虚弱，阳痿不举",
        "en": "Impotence due to Kidney yang deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宫冷不孕，月经不调，少腹冷痛",
        "en": "Infertility from cold womb, irregular menses, and cold lower abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "小便频数，遗尿失禁",
        "en": "Frequent urination, enuresis, and incontinence"
      },
      {
        "zh": "腰膝酸痛，筋骨痿软",
        "en": "Aching lower back and knees with weak sinews and bones"
      },
      {
        "zh": "风寒湿痹，脚气水肿",
        "en": "Wind-cold-damp bi and damp leg edema"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚火旺及有湿热者不宜服。大便燥结、口干舌红者忌用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g。亦可入丸散或浸酒。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "巴戟肉",
        "method": "去心生用",
        "effect": "去木心后入药，免燥伤阴"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐巴戟天",
        "method": "盐水炙",
        "effect": "引药入肾，增强补肾助阳之功"
      },
      {
        "name": "制巴戟天",
        "method": "甘草汁煮去心",
        "effect": "缓和药性，专补肾阳"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品温润不燥，但仍属温补之品，阴虚火旺者不宜。需去木心后入药。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味辛，微温。主大风邪气，阴痿不起，强筋骨，安五脏，补中增志益气。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "茜草科植物巴戟天的干燥根。归肾、肝经。补肾阳而不燥，温肾助阳之要药；兼能强筋骨、祛风湿，常用于肾阳虚兼风湿痹痛之证。常与淫羊藿、肉苁蓉同用。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "iridoid glycosides (monotropein, asperuloside)",
          "name_zh": "环烯醚萜苷",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "anthraquinones",
          "name_zh": "蒽醌类",
          "category": "anthraquinone",
          "notes": "minor fraction compared to true purgative herbs"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide",
          "notes": "implicated in immunomodulatory and anti-fatigue effects in animal models"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "巴戟天含环烯醚萜苷（如车叶草苷、水晶兰苷）、少量蒽醌及多糖，动物实验显示具有抗疲劳、抗骨质疏松和类雄激素样作用。",
        "en": "Morindae officinalis Radix contains iridoid glycosides (monotropein, asperuloside), minor anthraquinones, and polysaccharides, with animal data suggesting anti-fatigue, anti-osteoporotic, and mild androgen-like activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肾阳虚型阳痿、不育",
          "indication_en": "Kidney yang deficiency impotence and infertility",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "绝经后骨质疏松辅助治疗",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for postmenopausal osteoporosis",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记录巴戟天传统上用于肾阳虚腰膝酸软、阳痿早泄及风湿痹痛。",
          "note_en": "Bensky documents traditional use for kidney yang deficiency presenting as weak low back and knees, impotence, and wind-damp bi syndromes."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学提到巴戟天水提物在去卵巢大鼠模型中可改善骨密度。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen report that aqueous extracts improve bone density in ovariectomized rat models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "rou_cong_rong",
    "slug": "rou-cong-rong",
    "name_zh": "肉苁蓉",
    "name_pinyin": "Ròu Cōng Róng",
    "name_en": "Cistanche",
    "name_latin": "Cistanches Herba",
    "category": "补阳药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "salty"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补肾助阳",
        "en": "Tonify the Kidney and assist yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "益精血",
        "en": "Augment essence and blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肠通便",
        "en": "Moisten the intestines and unblock the bowels"
      },
      {
        "zh": "强筋骨",
        "en": "Strengthen the sinews and bones"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肾阳不足，精血亏虚之阳痿不孕",
        "en": "Impotence and infertility from Kidney yang and essence-blood deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "腰膝酸软，筋骨无力",
        "en": "Sore weak lower back and knees with feeble sinews and bones"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肠燥津枯，大便秘结",
        "en": "Constipation due to dry intestines and depleted fluids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "老人、产后及病后津枯便秘",
        "en": "Constipation in the elderly, postpartum, and after illness from depleted fluids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宫冷不孕，月经不调",
        "en": "Infertility from cold womb and irregular menstruation"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚火旺、大便溏泄、实热便秘者忌服。胃弱便溏者慎用。本品润肠滑下，泄泻者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–10g，大剂量可至15g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生肉苁蓉",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "润肠通便之力较强"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒苁蓉",
        "pinyin": "Jiǔ Cōng Róng",
        "method": "黄酒蒸制",
        "effect": "增强补肾助阳益精之功，减其滑润之性"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品味咸性温质润，能滑肠通便，故大便溏泄者不宜服用。阴虚火旺及实热便秘者忌用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，微温。主五劳七伤，补中，除茎中寒热痛，养五脏，强阴，益精气，多子，妇人癥瘕。久服轻身。"
      },
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "passage": "肉苁蓉，补而不峻，故有从容之号。从容，和缓之貌。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "列当科植物肉苁蓉或管花肉苁蓉的干燥带鳞叶的肉质茎。归肾、大肠经。素有沙漠人参之称。补肾阳、益精血之佳品，温而不燥、补而不峻；兼能润肠通便，治肠燥津枯之便秘。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "echinacoside",
          "name_zh": "松果菊苷",
          "category": "phenylethanoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "acteoside (verbascoside)",
          "category": "phenylethanoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "iridoid glycosides",
          "category": "iridoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "肉苁蓉富含苯乙醇苷（松果菊苷、毛蕊花糖苷）及环烯醚萜苷，现代研究显示其具神经保护、抗氧化、免疫调节及缓泻作用，与传统补肾阳、益精血、润肠通便之功相合。",
        "en": "Cistanche contains phenylethanoid glycosides (echinacoside, acteoside) and iridoids, with preclinical evidence for neuroprotection, antioxidant effects, immunomodulation, and mild laxative action, aligning with its traditional kidney-yang tonifying and bowel-moistening use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肾阳虚腰膝冷痛、阳痿",
          "indication_en": "Kidney-yang deficiency with cold lumbar pain and impotence",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "老年虚秘、津亏肠燥",
          "indication_en": "Elderly/deficiency constipation with intestinal dryness",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "认知功能下降（临床前神经保护）",
          "indication_en": "Cognitive decline (preclinical neuroprotection)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出肉苁蓉性润不燥，适用于虚人便秘，但湿热泄泻者忌用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Cistanche is moistening and non-drying, suitable for constipation in deficient patients but contraindicated in damp-heat diarrhea."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述松果菊苷在帕金森及阿尔茨海默动物模型中显示神经保护活性。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize echinacoside's neuroprotective activity in animal models of Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "du_zhong",
    "slug": "du-zhong",
    "name_zh": "杜仲",
    "name_pinyin": "Dù Zhòng",
    "name_en": "Eucommia Bark",
    "name_latin": "Eucommiae Cortex",
    "category": "补阳药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补肝肾",
        "en": "Tonify the Liver and Kidney"
      },
      {
        "zh": "强筋骨",
        "en": "Strengthen the sinews and bones"
      },
      {
        "zh": "安胎",
        "en": "Calm the fetus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "降血压",
        "en": "Lower blood pressure"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝肾不足，腰膝酸痛",
        "en": "Aching lower back and knees from Liver-Kidney deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "筋骨痿软，下肢无力",
        "en": "Weakness of sinews and bones with feeble lower limbs"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾虚胎漏，胎动不安",
        "en": "Threatened miscarriage and restless fetus from Kidney deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "妊娠下血",
        "en": "Vaginal bleeding during pregnancy"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝阳上亢之高血压、头晕目眩",
        "en": "Hypertension, dizziness, and vertigo from ascending Liver yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾虚尿频，小便余沥",
        "en": "Frequent urination and dribbling from Kidney deficiency"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚火旺者慎用。生杜仲偏于降压、强筋骨；炒杜仲（盐炒）则补肝肾、安胎之力强，二者不可混用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–10g。盐炙后入药为多。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生杜仲",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "偏于降血压、强筋骨"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐杜仲",
        "pinyin": "Yán Dù Zhòng",
        "method": "盐水炙至断丝",
        "effect": "引药入肾，增强补肝肾、强筋骨、安胎之功，临床多用此"
      },
      {
        "name": "炒杜仲",
        "method": "清炒至断丝",
        "effect": "易于煎出有效成分，破坏胶丝便于煎服"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "炮制时须炒至断丝，方便有效成分煎出。阴虚火旺者慎用。生品与盐炙品功效有别，临床须区分。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味辛，平。主腰脊痛，补中，益精气，坚筋骨，强志，除阴下痒湿，小便余沥。久服轻身耐老。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "杜仲科植物杜仲的干燥树皮。归肝、肾经。为补肝肾、强筋骨之要药，善治肝肾不足之腰膝酸痛、胎动不安；兼能降压，常用于肝肾不足之高血压。临床多盐炙后用，引药入肾。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "pinoresinol diglucoside",
          "name_zh": "松脂醇二葡萄糖苷",
          "category": "lignan glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "aucubin",
          "name_zh": "桃叶珊瑚苷",
          "category": "iridoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "chlorogenic acid",
          "name_zh": "绿原酸",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "gutta-percha (trans-polyisoprene)",
          "category": "polymer"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "杜仲含木脂素类（松脂醇二葡萄糖苷）、环烯醚萜（桃叶珊瑚苷）及绿原酸，药理确证其降压、骨代谢调节与免疫调节作用。",
        "en": "Duzhong contains lignans (pinoresinol diglucoside), iridoids (aucubin) and chlorogenic acid; pharmacology confirms antihypertensive, bone-metabolism and immunomodulatory effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "原发性高血压",
          "indication_en": "Essential hypertension",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "骨质疏松及腰膝酸软",
          "indication_en": "Osteoporosis and lumbar-knee weakness",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "先兆流产、胎动不安",
          "indication_en": "Threatened miscarriage with restless fetus",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以松脂醇二葡萄糖苷作为含量测定指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses pinoresinol diglucoside as the assay marker."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "传统为补肝肾、强筋骨、安胎要药；现代以炒杜仲降压作用较佳。",
          "note_en": "Classical herb to tonify liver-kidney, strengthen sinews and calm fetus; salt-fried form preferred for hypertension."
        },
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 收录本品降压作用证据与传统使用。",
          "note_en": "WHO monograph reviews antihypertensive evidence and traditional use."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "bu_gu_zhi",
    "slug": "bu-gu-zhi",
    "name_zh": "补骨脂",
    "name_pinyin": "Bǔ Gǔ Zhī",
    "name_en": "Psoralea Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Psoraleae Fructus",
    "category": "补阳药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "温肾助阳",
        "en": "Warm the Kidney and assist yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "纳气平喘",
        "en": "Grasp qi and calm wheezing"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温脾止泻",
        "en": "Warm the Spleen and stop diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外用消风祛斑",
        "en": "Externally dispel wind and treat vitiligo"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肾阳不足，阳痿遗精",
        "en": "Impotence and seminal emission from Kidney yang deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "腰膝冷痛，遗尿尿频",
        "en": "Cold pain in the lower back and knees with enuresis and frequent urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾不纳气，虚寒喘咳",
        "en": "Wheezing and cough from Kidney failing to grasp qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾肾阳虚，五更泄泻",
        "en": "Daybreak diarrhea from Spleen-Kidney yang deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外用治白癜风、斑秃、银屑病",
        "en": "Externally applied for vitiligo, alopecia areata, and psoriasis"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚火旺、大便秘结者忌服。本品性温燥，阴虚有热者不宜。外用或内服后需避光，以防光敏性皮炎。现代报道有肝毒性，不宜长期或大剂量服用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–10g。外用适量，酒浸涂患处。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生补骨脂",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "温肾助阳作用较强，外用治白癜风多用生品"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐补骨脂",
        "pinyin": "Yán Bǔ Gǔ Zhī",
        "method": "盐水炙",
        "effect": "引药入肾，温肾纳气、固精缩尿之力增强，并缓和辛燥之性"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含补骨脂素等呋喃香豆素类成分，具光敏性，服用或外用后须避免阳光暴晒，以防光敏性皮炎、色素沉着。现代有肝损害报道，肝功能异常者忌用，不宜长期超量服用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "passage": "补骨脂，治肾泄、通命门、暖丹田、敛精神。能使心包之火与命门之火相通，故元阳坚固，骨髓充实，涩以固脱也。"
      },
      {
        "text_key": null,
        "passage": "补骨脂主五劳七伤，风虚冷，骨髓伤败，肾冷精流。又主妇人血气堕胎。",
        "source_chapter": "开宝本草"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "豆科植物补骨脂的干燥成熟果实。归肾、脾经。又名破故纸。温肾壮阳、纳气平喘、温脾止泻之要药，为治脾肾阳虚五更泄泻（四神丸）之主药；外用治白癜风。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "psoralen",
          "name_zh": "补骨脂素",
          "category": "furanocoumarin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "isopsoralen (angelicin)",
          "name_zh": "异补骨脂素",
          "category": "furanocoumarin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "bakuchiol",
          "name_zh": "补骨脂酚",
          "category": "meroterpene phenol",
          "notes": "studied as retinol-like cosmetic ingredient"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "bavachin and bavachinin",
          "name_zh": "补骨脂查尔酮类",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "补骨脂含呋喃香豆素（补骨脂素、异补骨脂素）、补骨脂酚及黄酮类，具有光敏、补肾助阳、抗骨质疏松及色素沉着作用；近年临床报告显示其内服可能引起药物性肝损伤。",
        "en": "Psoraleae Fructus contains furanocoumarins (psoralen, isopsoralen), bakuchiol, and flavonoids, with photosensitizing, kidney yang-tonifying, antiosteoporotic, and pro-pigmentation activity; drug-induced liver injury has been reported with internal use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "白癜风（补骨脂素联合紫外线光化学疗法 PUVA）",
          "indication_en": "Vitiligo (psoralen plus UVA photochemotherapy, PUVA)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "银屑病（PUVA）",
          "indication_en": "Psoriasis (PUVA)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肾阳虚型腰膝冷痛、遗精遗尿",
          "indication_en": "Kidney yang deficiency with cold lumbar pain, spermatorrhea, and enuresis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载补骨脂素为经典的 PUVA 光敏剂，国际上长期用于白癜风和银屑病的治疗。",
          "note_en": "Bensky documents psoralen as a classic PUVA photosensitizer, used internationally for vitiligo and psoriasis."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 总结了多个国家关于补骨脂（包括中成药壮骨关节丸等）引起药物性肝损伤的病例报告，建议避免长期高剂量使用并监测肝功能。",
          "note_en": "Brinker summarizes case reports from multiple countries of drug-induced liver injury associated with Psoralea (including proprietary products such as Zhuang Gu Guan Jie Wan), advising against prolonged high-dose use and recommending liver monitoring."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学提醒使用补骨脂制剂后应避免过度日晒，以防光敏性皮炎。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen advise avoidance of excessive sun exposure after use to prevent photosensitizing dermatitis."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "yi_zhi_ren",
    "slug": "yi-zhi-ren",
    "name_zh": "益智仁",
    "name_pinyin": "Yì Zhì Rén",
    "name_en": "Black Cardamom",
    "name_latin": "Alpiniae Oxyphyllae Fructus",
    "category": "补阳药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "温肾固精缩尿",
        "en": "Warm the Kidney, secure essence, and reduce urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温脾开胃摄唾",
        "en": "Warm the Spleen, open the appetite, and check salivation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温中止泻",
        "en": "Warm the middle and stop diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "暖肾止遗",
        "en": "Warm the Kidney and stop enuresis"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肾阳虚，遗精早泄",
        "en": "Spermatorrhea and premature ejaculation from Kidney yang deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "遗尿、小便频数",
        "en": "Enuresis and frequent urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾胃虚寒，腹痛吐泻",
        "en": "Spleen-Stomach cold deficiency with abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "口多涎唾，小儿流涎不止",
        "en": "Excessive salivation, including persistent drooling in children"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾寒泄泻，食少不化",
        "en": "Cold diarrhea and poor digestion from cold Spleen"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚火旺、热盛遗精、血热崩漏者忌服。阴虚血燥所致之尿频、遗精，非本品所宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–10g。入丸散酌减。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生益智仁",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "温脾摄唾、温中止泻"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐益智仁",
        "pinyin": "Yán Yì Zhì Rén",
        "method": "盐水炙",
        "effect": "引药入肾，增强固精缩尿之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品辛温，阴虚火旺者忌用。临床固精缩尿多用盐炙品。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "passage": "益智，行阳退阴之药也。三焦、命门气弱者宜之。脾主智，此物能益脾胃故也。"
      },
      {
        "text_key": null,
        "passage": "益智子，止呕哕，摄涎唾，缩小便。",
        "source_chapter": "本草拾遗"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "姜科植物益智的干燥成熟果实。归脾、肾经。温肾固精缩尿、温脾开胃摄唾之要药。常与乌药、山药同用（缩泉丸）治肾虚遗尿、小便频数；与山药、茯苓同用治小儿流涎。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "nootkatone",
          "name_zh": "诺卡酮",
          "category": "sesquiterpene ketone",
          "notes": "principal volatile oil component"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "yakuchinone A and B",
          "name_zh": "益智酮甲/乙",
          "category": "diarylheptanoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cineole (eucalyptol)",
          "category": "monoterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "zingiberene",
          "category": "sesquiterpene"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "益智仁挥发油含诺卡酮、桉叶素及益智酮等成分，具有抗胆碱、改善学习记忆、温肾固精、缩尿止泻的药理作用。",
        "en": "Alpinia oxyphylla volatile oil contains nootkatone, cineole and yakuchinones with anticholinergic, memory-enhancing, kidney-warming and antidiuretic/antidiarrheal effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肾阳虚之遗尿、尿频",
          "indication_en": "Enuresis and urinary frequency from kidney yang deficiency",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾肾虚寒之泄泻、流涎",
          "indication_en": "Diarrhea and drooling from spleen-kidney cold deficiency",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "认知功能减退辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for cognitive decline",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出益智仁温脾肾、摄津液，传统用于遗尿、多涎。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Yi Zhi Ren warms spleen and kidney and contains fluids, traditionally used for enuresis and excessive salivation."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述动物研究显示益智仁提取物改善东莨菪碱所致记忆障碍。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite animal studies showing Yi Zhi Ren extracts reverse scopolamine-induced memory impairment."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "tu_si_zi",
    "slug": "tu-si-zi",
    "name_zh": "菟丝子",
    "name_pinyin": "Tù Sī Zǐ",
    "name_en": "Chinese Dodder Seed",
    "name_latin": "Cuscutae Semen",
    "category": "补阳药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent",
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补肾益精",
        "en": "Tonify the Kidney and augment essence"
      },
      {
        "zh": "养肝明目",
        "en": "Nourish the Liver and brighten the eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "安胎",
        "en": "Calm the fetus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止泻",
        "en": "Stop diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外用消风祛斑",
        "en": "Externally dispel wind and treat vitiligo"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肾虚腰痛，阳痿遗精",
        "en": "Lumbar pain, impotence, and seminal emission from Kidney deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "尿频遗尿，白浊带下",
        "en": "Frequent urination, enuresis, turbid urine, and leukorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝肾不足之目暗不明",
        "en": "Blurred vision from Liver-Kidney deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脾肾两虚之便溏泄泻",
        "en": "Loose stools and diarrhea from Spleen-Kidney deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾虚胎漏、胎动不安、滑胎",
        "en": "Threatened miscarriage and habitual abortion from Kidney deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "外用治白癜风",
        "en": "Externally applied for vitiligo"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚火旺、大便燥结及小便短赤者不宜服。孕妇有热者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–12g。入丸散尤宜，或捣碎入煎。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生菟丝子",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "外用治白癜风多用生品"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐菟丝子",
        "pinyin": "Yán Tù Sī Zǐ",
        "method": "盐水炙",
        "effect": "引药入肾，增强补肾固精缩尿之功"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒菟丝子",
        "pinyin": "Jiǔ Tù Sī Zǐ",
        "method": "黄酒蒸制（菟丝饼）",
        "effect": "便于煎出有效成分，并增强补肾益精之力"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品平补阴阳，性较和缓，但阴虚火旺者仍不宜用。质坚硬，宜捣碎或制饼后入药。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味辛，平。主续绝伤，补不足，益气力，肥健人。汁去面皯。久服明目，轻身延年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "旋花科植物南方菟丝子或菟丝子的干燥成熟种子。归肝、肾、脾经。性平和，平补阴阳，为补肾益精、养肝明目、安胎之要药。常与枸杞子、覆盆子等同用（五子衍宗丸）。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "flavonoids (hyperoside, quercetin)",
          "name_zh": "金丝桃苷、槲皮素",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "Cuscuta polysaccharides",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "lignans (sesamin, arctiin)",
          "category": "lignan"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "cuscutamine",
          "category": "alkaloid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "菟丝子主含黄酮、多糖及木脂素类成分，具有雌激素样作用、免疫调节、抗氧化及保肝作用。",
        "en": "Cuscuta seed contains flavonoids, polysaccharides and lignans, with mild estrogen-modulating, immunomodulatory, antioxidant and hepatoprotective activity."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肾虚腰痛、阳痿遗精",
          "indication_en": "Kidney-deficient lumbar pain, impotence and spermatorrhea",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肾虚胎动不安",
          "indication_en": "Restless fetus from Kidney deficiency",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "补肾益精、养肝明目、安胎，平补阴阳，不偏温燥。",
          "note_en": "Tonifies Kidney essence, nourishes Liver and brightens the eyes, and calms the fetus; balances yin and yang without being overly warming."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "菟丝子黄酮在动物模型中显示雌激素样及抗骨质疏松活性。",
          "note_en": "Cuscuta flavonoids show estrogen-like and anti-osteoporotic activity in animal models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "sha_yuan_zi",
    "slug": "sha-yuan-zi",
    "name_zh": "沙苑子",
    "name_pinyin": "Shā Yuàn Zǐ",
    "name_en": "Flat Milkvetch Seed",
    "name_latin": "Astragali Complanati Semen",
    "category": "补阳药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补肾固精",
        "en": "Tonify the Kidney and secure essence"
      },
      {
        "zh": "养肝明目",
        "en": "Nourish the Liver and brighten the eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "缩尿止遗",
        "en": "Reduce urination and stop enuresis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止带",
        "en": "Check vaginal discharge"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肾虚腰痛，遗精早泄",
        "en": "Lumbar pain, seminal emission, and premature ejaculation from Kidney deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "白浊带下，尿频遗尿",
        "en": "Turbid urine, leukorrhea, frequent urination, and enuresis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肝肾不足之目暗不明、视物昏花",
        "en": "Blurred and dim vision from Liver-Kidney deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "头晕目眩，腰膝酸软",
        "en": "Dizziness, vertigo, and weak aching lower back and knees"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾虚不孕",
        "en": "Infertility from Kidney deficiency"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "相火炽盛、阳强易举者忌服。阴虚火旺、小便不利者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服9–15g。入丸散酌减。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生沙苑子",
        "method": "生用",
        "effect": "补肝明目作用为主"
      },
      {
        "name": "盐沙苑子",
        "pinyin": "Yán Shā Yuàn Zǐ",
        "method": "盐水炙",
        "effect": "引药入肾，增强补肾固精缩尿之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品甘温固涩，相火旺、阳事易举者忌用。又名沙苑蒺藜、潼蒺藜，应与白蒺藜（刺蒺藜）相区别，二者功效不同。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "passage": "沙苑蒺藜，补肾，治腰痛泄精，虚损劳乏。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "豆科植物扁茎黄芪的干燥成熟种子。又名沙苑蒺藜、潼蒺藜。归肝、肾经。性温质润，补肾固精、养肝明目兼能缩尿止带，为治肾虚遗精、白浊带下、目暗昏花之要药。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "astragalin (kaempferol-3-glucoside)",
          "category": "flavonoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "complanatuside",
          "name_zh": "沙苑子苷",
          "category": "flavonoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "phytosterols (β-sitosterol)",
          "category": "sterol"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "沙苑子（潼蒺藜）为豆科扁茎黄芪种子，含黄酮苷（沙苑子苷、紫云英苷）及甾醇，现代研究显示其有降压、降血脂、保肝及免疫调节作用，对应传统补肾固精、养肝明目之功。",
        "en": "Flatstem milkvetch seed contains flavonoid glycosides (complanatuside, astragalin) and phytosterols, with preclinical reports of antihypertensive, lipid-lowering, hepatoprotective, and immunomodulatory effects that align with its traditional kidney-tonifying, essence-securing, and vision-brightening use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肾虚腰痛、遗精早泄、尿频",
          "indication_en": "Kidney deficiency with low-back pain, spermatorrhea, and frequent urination",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝肾不足之目昏",
          "indication_en": "Liver-kidney deficiency with blurred vision",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 强调沙苑子温润不燥，然相火旺、阳强者忌用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Sha Yuan Zi is warming yet moistening, but contraindicated in cases of excess ministerial fire or yang excess."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 记载沙苑子总黄酮在动物模型中显示降压与保肝作用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen report antihypertensive and hepatoprotective effects of total flavonoids from Sha Yuan Zi in animal models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "sha_shen",
    "slug": "sha-shen",
    "name_zh": "北沙参",
    "name_pinyin": "Běi Shā Shēn",
    "name_en": "Glehnia Root",
    "name_latin": "Glehniae Radix",
    "category": "补阴药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "slightly bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "养阴清肺",
        "en": "Nourish yin and clear the Lung"
      },
      {
        "zh": "益胃生津",
        "en": "Augment the Stomach and generate fluids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肺止咳",
        "en": "Moisten the Lung and stop cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "除虚热",
        "en": "Eliminate deficiency heat"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肺阴虚之干咳少痰，咽干音哑",
        "en": "Lung yin deficiency with dry cough, scanty sputum, dry throat, and hoarseness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "燥热伤肺，劳嗽痰血",
        "en": "Dryness-heat damaging the Lung with consumptive cough and blood-streaked sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胃阴不足之口燥咽干、舌红少苔",
        "en": "Stomach yin deficiency with dry mouth and throat, red tongue with scanty coating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热病伤津，胃脘隐痛",
        "en": "Febrile disease damaging fluids with dull epigastric pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "虚热口渴，大便干结",
        "en": "Deficiency heat with thirst and dry stools"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "风寒咳嗽及脾胃虚寒、寒饮喘咳者忌服。反藜芦（十八反）。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服常用5–12g；鲜品可用至15–30g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生北沙参",
        "method": "去须根，洗净，润透切段，干燥",
        "effect": "养阴清肺、益胃生津"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "属十八反，不宜与藜芦同用。性偏凉润，脾虚便溏者慎用。临床上北沙参（伞形科）与南沙参（桔梗科）功效相近但来源不同，本经所载沙参实指今之南沙参。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦，微寒。主血积惊气，除寒热，补中，益肺气。久服利人。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "伞形科植物珊瑚菜的干燥根。归肺、胃经。性味甘、微苦，微寒，为养阴清肺、益胃生津之要药。常用于肺胃阴虚之燥咳、咽干、口渴诸证。需注意：《神农本草经》所载沙参指今之南沙参（桔梗科），北沙参之名始见于《本草汇言》。",
    "description_en": "The dried root of Glehnia littoralis (Apiaceae). Enters the Lung and Stomach channels. Sweet and slightly bitter in flavor, slightly cold in nature; a key herb to nourish Lung yin, generate Stomach fluids, and moisten dryness. Note: the 'sha shen' of the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing refers to what is today called Nan Sha Shen (Adenophora, Campanulaceae); 'Bei Sha Shen' as a separate name appears later in Ben Cao Hui Yan.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "polyacetylenes (falcarinol-type)",
          "category": "polyyne (North sha shen)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "triterpenoid saponins",
          "category": "triterpene saponin (South sha shen — Adenophora)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polysaccharides",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "coumarins",
          "category": "coumarin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "沙参有南北之分：北沙参（Glehnia）与南沙参（Adenophora）均含多糖与三萜/香豆素类，现代研究报道免疫调节、化痰、祛痰及解热作用，对应传统养阴清肺、益胃生津之功。",
        "en": "Sha Shen comes in Northern (Glehnia littoralis) and Southern (Adenophora) forms, both containing polysaccharides and triterpenoid or coumarin constituents. Preclinical work reports immunomodulatory, expectorant, and antipyretic effects consistent with its traditional lung-yin and stomach-yin nourishing use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肺阴虚燥咳、干咳少痰",
          "indication_en": "Lung-yin deficiency dry cough",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "胃阴不足、口干舌燥",
          "indication_en": "Stomach-yin deficiency with dry mouth and tongue",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "热病伤津后恢复",
          "indication_en": "Convalescence after febrile fluid damage",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 强调沙参反藜芦（十八反），且风寒咳嗽与脾虚便溏者忌用。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Sha Shen antagonizes Li Lu (Veratrum, 'Eighteen Antagonisms') and is inappropriate in wind-cold cough or spleen-deficient loose stools."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述北沙参多糖具免疫调节活性，并有镇咳祛痰动物实验报告。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize immunomodulatory activity of Glehnia polysaccharides and animal evidence for antitussive/expectorant effects."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "mai_dong",
    "slug": "mai-dong",
    "name_zh": "麦冬",
    "name_pinyin": "Mài Dōng",
    "name_en": "Ophiopogon Tuber",
    "name_latin": "Ophiopogonis Radix",
    "category": "补阴药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "slightly bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "养阴润肺",
        "en": "Nourish yin and moisten the Lung"
      },
      {
        "zh": "益胃生津",
        "en": "Augment the Stomach and generate fluids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清心除烦",
        "en": "Clear the Heart and eliminate irritability"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肠通便",
        "en": "Moisten the intestines and unblock the bowels"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肺阴不足之燥咳痰粘，劳嗽咯血",
        "en": "Lung yin deficiency with dry cough, sticky sputum, and consumptive cough with hemoptysis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胃阴不足之舌干口渴，胃脘灼痛",
        "en": "Stomach yin deficiency with dry tongue, thirst, and burning epigastric pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热伤津液，肠燥便秘",
        "en": "Heat-damaged fluids with intestinal dryness and constipation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "心阴不足之心烦失眠，心悸",
        "en": "Heart yin deficiency with irritability, insomnia, and palpitations"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温热病后期，余热未清，烦渴不寐",
        "en": "Late-stage warm disease with lingering heat, thirst, and sleeplessness"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚寒泄泻、胃有痰饮湿浊及风寒表证咳嗽者均忌服。外感初起、表邪未解者不宜单用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服常用6–12g；养阴生津、清心除烦可用至15g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "去心麦冬",
        "method": "润透抽去木心后干燥",
        "effect": "传统认为去心可避免令人烦闷，然现代研究显示心与不去心功效相近"
      },
      {
        "name": "朱麦冬",
        "method": "朱砂拌制",
        "effect": "增强清心安神之效，用于心烦失眠"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性偏寒润，脾胃虚寒便溏者慎用。外感风寒咳嗽不宜，恐恋邪不解。朱麦冬含朱砂（硫化汞），不宜久服。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主心腹结气，伤中伤饱，胃络脉绝，羸瘦短气。久服轻身不老不饥。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "百合科植物麦冬的干燥块根。归肺、胃、心经。甘、微苦，微寒，为养阴润肺、益胃生津、清心除烦之要药。生脉散、麦门冬汤、增液汤皆以本品为君药。",
    "description_en": "The dried tuber of Ophiopogon japonicus (Liliaceae). Enters the Lung, Stomach, and Heart channels. Sweet and slightly bitter, slightly cold; a cardinal herb for nourishing Lung yin, generating Stomach fluids, and clearing Heart-fire irritability. It is the chief herb in Sheng Mai San, Mai Men Dong Tang, and Zeng Ye Tang.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "ophiopogonins (steroidal saponins)",
          "name_zh": "麦冬皂苷",
          "category": "steroidal saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ophiopogonanone A and homoisoflavones",
          "name_zh": "麦冬酮及高异黄酮",
          "category": "homoisoflavonoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polysaccharides (fructans)",
          "name_zh": "麦冬多糖（果聚糖）",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "β-sitosterol",
          "name_zh": "β-谷甾醇",
          "category": "phytosterol"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "麦冬含甾体皂苷、高异黄酮和多糖，具强心、抗心律失常、抗氧化、免疫调节及降糖作用。",
        "en": "Ophiopogon contains steroidal saponins, homoisoflavonoids, and polysaccharides with cardiotonic, antiarrhythmic, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and hypoglycemic effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "冠心病与心律失常辅助（生脉制剂）",
          "indication_en": "Coronary heart disease and arrhythmia adjunct (Sheng Mai preparations)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "阴虚燥咳与咽干",
          "indication_en": "Yin-deficiency dry cough and throat",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "糖尿病消渴辅助",
          "indication_en": "Diabetic xiao-ke adjunct",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "麦冬皂苷改善心肌供血，动物实验显示抗心律失常及抗心肌缺血作用。",
          "note_en": "Ophiopogonins improve myocardial perfusion and show antiarrhythmic and anti-ischemic effects in animal models."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "麦冬养阴润肺、益胃生津、清心除烦，为生脉散主药之一。",
          "note_en": "Nourishes yin, moistens lungs, benefits stomach, generates fluids, and clears heart irritability; a key herb of Sheng Mai San."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以浸出物和总皂苷含量为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses extractives and total saponin content as quality markers."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "shi_hu",
    "slug": "shi-hu",
    "name_zh": "石斛",
    "name_pinyin": "Shí Hú",
    "name_en": "Dendrobium Stem",
    "name_latin": "Dendrobii Caulis",
    "category": "补阴药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "益胃生津",
        "en": "Augment the Stomach and generate fluids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "滋阴清热",
        "en": "Nourish yin and clear heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "明目强腰",
        "en": "Brighten the eyes and strengthen the lower back"
      },
      {
        "zh": "退虚热",
        "en": "Reduce deficiency heat"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "胃阴虚之口干烦渴，食少干呕",
        "en": "Stomach yin deficiency with dry mouth, irritable thirst, poor appetite, and dry retching"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热病伤津，舌光少苔",
        "en": "Febrile disease damaging fluids with a glossy tongue and scanty coating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾阴不足之目暗不明，视物昏花",
        "en": "Kidney yin deficiency with dim vision and blurred sight"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴虚火旺之骨蒸劳热，夜热早凉",
        "en": "Yin deficiency with effulgent fire causing steaming-bone tidal fever and night fever cooling at dawn"
      },
      {
        "zh": "腰膝软弱，筋骨痿痹",
        "en": "Weakness of the lower back and knees with sinew-bone atrophy"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "温热病早期、邪未化燥者及湿温尚未化燥者忌服。脾胃虚寒便溏者慎用。能敛邪助湿，故温热病初期不宜过早使用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "干品煎服6–12g，宜久煎；鲜石斛15–30g，鲜品养阴生津之力更胜。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "鲜石斛",
        "method": "新鲜茎洗净切段",
        "effect": "清热生津力强，多用于热病伤津、舌干口渴"
      },
      {
        "name": "干石斛",
        "method": "采收后去叶，烘软揉搓，反复至干",
        "effect": "滋阴养胃力胜，多用于胃阴久虚"
      },
      {
        "name": "枫斗（耳环石斛）",
        "method": "新鲜茎边烘边扭成螺旋状",
        "effect": "霍山石斛上品，滋阴生津、补虚强身"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "石斛能敛邪助湿，温热病初期、湿温未化燥者均不宜使用，恐留邪不解。本品宜久煎以充分释出有效成分。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主伤中，除痹，下气，补五脏虚劳羸瘦，强阴。久服厚肠胃，轻身延年。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "兰科植物金钗石斛、鼓槌石斛、流苏石斛或铁皮石斛的栽培品及其同属植物近似种的新鲜或干燥茎。归胃、肾经。甘，微寒，长于养胃阴、生津液、退虚热、明目强腰。鲜品偏于清热生津，干品偏于滋阴养胃。",
    "description_en": "The fresh or dried stem of Dendrobium nobile, D. chrysotoxum, D. fimbriatum, or D. officinale (Orchidaceae). Enters the Stomach and Kidney channels. Sweet and slightly cold; excels at nourishing Stomach yin, generating fluids, reducing deficiency heat, and brightening the eyes. The fresh form leans toward clearing heat and generating fluids, while the dried form is stronger at nourishing Stomach yin.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "dendrobine",
          "name_zh": "石斛碱",
          "category": "sesquiterpene alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "Dendrobium polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "石斛多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "erianin",
          "category": "bibenzyl"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "gigantol",
          "category": "bibenzyl"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "石斛主含石斛多糖、石斛碱及联苄类化合物，具有免疫调节、养胃生津、抗氧化及抗肿瘤活性研究。",
        "en": "Dendrobium contains polysaccharides, the alkaloid dendrobine, and bibenzyls (erianin, gigantol) with immunomodulatory, fluid-generating, antioxidant and investigational antitumor effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "热病伤津、口干烦渴",
          "indication_en": "Febrile fluid damage with dry mouth and thirst",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "胃阴不足之胃脘不适",
          "indication_en": "Stomach-yin deficiency epigastric discomfort",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "益胃生津、滋阴清热，用于热病伤阴及胃阴虚证。",
          "note_en": "Nourishes stomach fluids and clears deficient heat; used for febrile yin damage and stomach-yin deficiency."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "毛兰素（erianin）及相关联苄类在体外和动物模型中显示抗肿瘤活性。",
          "note_en": "Erianin and related bibenzyls show antitumor activity in vitro and in animal models."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "huang_jing",
    "slug": "huang-jing",
    "name_zh": "黄精",
    "name_pinyin": "Huáng Jīng",
    "name_en": "Solomon's Seal Rhizome",
    "name_latin": "Polygonati Rhizoma",
    "category": "补阴药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补气养阴",
        "en": "Tonify qi and nourish yin"
      },
      {
        "zh": "健脾润肺",
        "en": "Strengthen the Spleen and moisten the Lung"
      },
      {
        "zh": "益肾填精",
        "en": "Augment the Kidney and supplement essence"
      },
      {
        "zh": "强筋壮骨",
        "en": "Strengthen sinews and bones"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脾胃气虚之倦怠乏力，食少口干",
        "en": "Spleen-Stomach qi deficiency with fatigue, poor appetite, and dry mouth"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺阴不足之燥咳少痰，劳嗽久咳",
        "en": "Lung yin deficiency with dry cough, scanty sputum, and chronic consumptive cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾精亏虚之腰膝酸软，须发早白",
        "en": "Kidney essence deficiency with sore weak lower back and knees, premature graying of hair"
      },
      {
        "zh": "内热消渴，气阴两伤",
        "en": "Internal heat wasting-thirst (xiaoke) with dual injury of qi and yin"
      },
      {
        "zh": "头晕目眩，体虚消瘦",
        "en": "Dizziness, blurred vision, and emaciation due to deficiency"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "中寒泄泻、痰湿痞满气滞者忌服。脾虚有湿、咳嗽痰多者不宜使用，恐助湿生痰。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服9–15g；鲜品可用至30–60g。生品质润，久服宜制。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生黄精",
        "method": "净制切片晒干",
        "effect": "麻味较强，有刺激咽喉之性，不宜直接服用"
      },
      {
        "name": "制黄精（九蒸九晒）",
        "method": "经九次蒸制九次晒制（或反复蒸晒）",
        "effect": "去除麻味及刺激性，色黑味甘，补益肝肾、填精强身之力倍增"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒黄精",
        "method": "黄酒拌蒸",
        "effect": "增强补益肝肾、强筋壮骨之效"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "生黄精含黏液质及刺激性成分，直接服用可致咽喉麻木、刺痒，必须经蒸制（九蒸九晒）后方可使用。脾虚湿盛、痰浊壅肺者不宜，以免恋湿助痰。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": null,
        "passage": "黄精，味甘，平，无毒。主补中益气，除风湿，安五脏。久服轻身延年不饥。",
        "source_chapter": "《名医别录》上品（梁·陶弘景辑）"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "百合科植物滇黄精、黄精或多花黄精的干燥根茎。归脾、肺、肾经。甘，平。气阴双补，补脾润肺、益肾填精，为平补三焦之佳品。首载于《雷公炮炙论》《名医别录》，《神农本草经》未载。九蒸九晒后药性更醇，服食养生家多用之。",
    "description_en": "The dried rhizome of Polygonatum kingianum, P. sibiricum, or P. cyrtonema (Liliaceae). Enters the Spleen, Lung, and Kidney channels. Sweet and neutral; tonifies both qi and yin, strengthens the Spleen, moistens the Lung, and supplements Kidney essence — a gentle three-burner tonic. First recorded in Lei Gong Pao Zhi Lun and Ming Yi Bie Lu (not in the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing). The 'nine-steamings, nine-sunnings' processing renders the herb mellower and is favored by practitioners of dietary cultivation.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "Polygonatum polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "黄精多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "steroidal saponins (polygonatosides)",
          "name_zh": "黄精皂苷",
          "category": "steroidal saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "homoisoflavonoids",
          "category": "flavonoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "黄精主含黄精多糖、甾体皂苷与高异黄酮类，药理示其免疫调节、降糖、降脂、抗疲劳与抗氧化作用；生品刺激咽喉，须经九蒸九晒炮制后方可内服。",
        "en": "Huangjing contains Polygonatum polysaccharides, steroidal saponins and homoisoflavonoids; pharmacology shows immunomodulatory, hypoglycemic, lipid-lowering, antifatigue and antioxidant activity. Raw material irritates the throat and must be steamed/sun-dried repeatedly before oral use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾胃气虚、肺阴不足",
          "indication_en": "Spleen-stomach qi deficiency and lung-yin insufficiency",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "2 型糖尿病辅助",
          "indication_en": "Type 2 diabetes (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "免疫力低下及疲劳",
          "indication_en": "Low immunity and fatigue",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》收载滇黄精、黄精与多花黄精三种基源，并以黄精多糖含量作为质量控制指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists three source species (P. kingianum, P. sibiricum, P. cyrtonema) with Polygonatum polysaccharide content as quality marker."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "脾虚有湿、痰湿壅盛者不宜；须炮制后使用以减少咽喉刺激。",
          "note_en": "Avoid in spleen-damp and phlegm-damp patterns; must be processed to reduce throat irritation."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "多与枸杞子、黄芪等配伍用于气阴两虚。",
          "note_en": "Commonly combined with gouqizi and huangqi for dual qi-yin deficiency."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "bai_he",
    "slug": "bai-he",
    "name_zh": "百合",
    "name_pinyin": "Bǎi Hé",
    "name_en": "Lily Bulb",
    "name_latin": "Lilii Bulbus",
    "category": "补阴药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "养阴润肺",
        "en": "Nourish yin and moisten the Lung"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清心安神",
        "en": "Clear the Heart and calm the spirit"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止咳化痰",
        "en": "Stop cough and transform phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "退虚热",
        "en": "Reduce deficiency heat"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "阴虚肺燥之干咳少痰，痰中带血",
        "en": "Yin-deficient Lung dryness with dry cough, scanty sputum, and blood-streaked sputum"
      },
      {
        "zh": "劳嗽久嗽，咽干音哑",
        "en": "Chronic consumptive cough with dry throat and hoarseness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热病余邪未清，虚烦惊悸，失眠多梦",
        "en": "Lingering heat after febrile disease with deficiency vexation, palpitations, insomnia, and excessive dreaming"
      },
      {
        "zh": "百合病（精神恍惚，情绪不宁，口苦尿赤）",
        "en": "Bai He disease (mental disorientation, emotional restlessness, bitter taste, dark urine)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "更年期心烦不寐",
        "en": "Menopausal irritability and insomnia"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "风寒咳嗽及中寒便溏者忌服。脾胃虚寒、痰湿壅盛者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–12g；蜜炙润肺止咳力增；鲜品用量加倍。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生百合",
        "method": "鳞叶剥下，沸水稍烫后晒干",
        "effect": "清心安神，退虚热"
      },
      {
        "name": "蜜百合",
        "method": "蜜炙",
        "effect": "润肺止咳之力增强，多用于肺虚久咳"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性偏寒润，风寒外感咳嗽及脾虚便溏者不宜。百合病所用本品，张仲景《金匮要略》有百合知母汤、百合地黄汤等方。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主邪气腹胀心痛，利大小便，补中益气。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "百合科植物卷丹、百合或细叶百合的干燥肉质鳞叶。归心、肺经。甘，微寒。养阴润肺以治虚劳燥咳，清心安神以治虚烦不寐。仲景《金匮要略》立百合病专篇，以本品为主药。",
    "description_en": "The dried fleshy scale leaves of Lilium lancifolium, L. brownii var. viridulum, or L. pumilum (Liliaceae). Enters the Heart and Lung channels. Sweet and slightly cold; nourishes Lung yin to treat deficiency-cough and dryness, and clears the Heart to calm deficiency-vexation and insomnia. Zhang Zhongjing devoted a chapter of the Jin Gui Yao Lue to 'bai he disease,' for which this herb is the principal remedy.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "steroidal saponins",
          "name_zh": "甾体皂苷",
          "category": "saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "colchicine and related alkaloids",
          "name_zh": "秋水仙碱类生物碱",
          "category": "alkaloid",
          "notes": "present in trace amounts; fresh bulbs should be cooked before use"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "百合多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "百合富含甾体皂苷、多糖及微量生物碱，具有润肺止咳、镇静及免疫调节作用；动物实验显示其水提物有抗抑郁样效果。",
        "en": "Lilii Bulbus is rich in steroidal saponins, polysaccharides, and trace alkaloids, with demulcent antitussive, sedative, and immunomodulatory activity; aqueous extracts show antidepressant-like effects in animal models."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "阴虚燥咳、慢性咽炎",
          "indication_en": "Yin-deficient dry cough and chronic pharyngitis",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "焦虑、失眠（百合病）",
          "indication_en": "Anxiety and insomnia (lily disease syndrome)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 描述百合主治肺阴虚燥咳及心阴虚烦躁失眠。",
          "note_en": "Bensky describes use for lung yin deficiency dry cough and heart yin deficiency with restlessness and insomnia."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "陈氏药理学指出百合多糖可增强免疫功能，水提物在小鼠强迫游泳实验中显示抗抑郁活性。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that Lilium polysaccharides enhance immune function and extracts show antidepressant activity in the mouse forced-swim test."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "gou_qi_zi",
    "slug": "gou-qi-zi",
    "name_zh": "枸杞子",
    "name_pinyin": "Gǒu Qǐ Zǐ",
    "name_en": "Goji Berry / Wolfberry",
    "name_latin": "Lycii Fructus",
    "category": "补阴药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "滋补肝肾",
        "en": "Enrich the Liver and Kidney"
      },
      {
        "zh": "益精明目",
        "en": "Augment essence and brighten the eyes"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肺止咳",
        "en": "Moisten the Lung and stop cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "养血生津",
        "en": "Nourish blood and generate fluids"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝肾阴虚之腰膝酸软，眩晕耳鸣",
        "en": "Liver-Kidney yin deficiency with sore weak lower back and knees, dizziness, and tinnitus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "精血不足之视物昏花，目暗不明",
        "en": "Essence-blood deficiency with blurred vision and dim eyesight"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾虚遗精，阳痿早泄",
        "en": "Kidney deficiency with seminal emission, impotence, and premature ejaculation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺肾阴虚之劳嗽久咳",
        "en": "Lung-Kidney yin deficiency with chronic consumptive cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "消渴口干，须发早白",
        "en": "Wasting-thirst with dry mouth and premature graying of hair"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "外邪实热、脾虚有湿及泄泻者忌服。性温润滋腻，外感发热及脾虚湿盛便溏者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–12g；亦可嚼食、泡茶或入丸散。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生枸杞子",
        "method": "果实成熟时采收，热风烘干或晾晒",
        "effect": "滋补肝肾、益精明目"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品性平偏润，外感实热、脾虚湿盛者忌用。糖尿病患者大量服用需注意其含糖量。与某些抗凝药（华法林）可能存在相互作用，长期服用者需告知医师。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味苦，寒。主五内邪气，热中消渴，周痹。久服坚筋骨，轻身不老。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "茄科植物宁夏枸杞的干燥成熟果实。归肝、肾经。甘，平。为平补肝肾、益精养血、明目之要药，宁夏中宁所产为道地。《本经》列为上品，原称\"枸杞\"，后世以根皮（地骨皮）与果实分用。",
    "description_en": "The dried ripe fruit of Lycium barbarum (Solanaceae). Enters the Liver and Kidney channels. Sweet and neutral; a cardinal balanced tonic for the Liver and Kidney that augments essence, nourishes blood, and brightens the eyes. The variety from Zhongning, Ningxia is considered the daodi (geo-authentic) source. Listed as a superior-grade herb in the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing under the name 'gou qi'; later authors split usage between the root bark (di gu pi) and the fruit.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP)",
          "name_zh": "枸杞多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "zeaxanthin dipalmitate",
          "name_zh": "玉米黄质二棕榈酸酯",
          "category": "carotenoid ester"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "betaine",
          "name_zh": "甜菜碱",
          "category": "alkaloid/amino acid derivative"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "枸杞子主含枸杞多糖（LBP）、类胡萝卜素（玉米黄质）与甜菜碱，药理示其免疫调节、抗氧化、保肝、改善视网膜功能与降糖作用。",
        "en": "Gouqizi contains Lycium barbarum polysaccharides, carotenoids (zeaxanthin) and betaine; pharmacology shows immunomodulatory, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, retinal-supporting and hypoglycemic effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝肾阴虚、视物昏花",
          "indication_en": "Liver-kidney yin deficiency with blurred vision",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "老年性黄斑变性辅助",
          "indication_en": "Age-related macular degeneration (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "糖尿病与代谢综合征辅助",
          "indication_en": "Diabetes and metabolic syndrome (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以枸杞多糖与甜菜碱作为质量控制指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses LBP and betaine as quality markers."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "可能增强华法林作用；含 CYP2C9 抑制成分，已有国际病例报告。",
          "note_en": "May potentiate warfarin; case reports of INR increase; possible CYP2C9 inhibition."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "外感实热、脾虚有湿及腹泻者不宜多食。",
          "note_en": "Avoid excessive intake in exterior heat, damp-spleen deficiency or diarrhea."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "nu_zhen_zi",
    "slug": "nu-zhen-zi",
    "name_zh": "女贞子",
    "name_pinyin": "Nǚ Zhēn Zǐ",
    "name_en": "Glossy Privet Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Ligustri Lucidi Fructus",
    "category": "补阴药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "滋补肝肾",
        "en": "Enrich the Liver and Kidney"
      },
      {
        "zh": "明目乌发",
        "en": "Brighten the eyes and darken the hair"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清虚热",
        "en": "Clear deficiency heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "强腰膝",
        "en": "Strengthen the lower back and knees"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝肾阴虚之眩晕耳鸣，腰膝酸软",
        "en": "Liver-Kidney yin deficiency with dizziness, tinnitus, and sore weak lower back and knees"
      },
      {
        "zh": "须发早白，须发早脱",
        "en": "Premature graying and loss of hair"
      },
      {
        "zh": "目暗不明，视物昏花",
        "en": "Dim eyesight and blurred vision"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴虚发热，骨蒸潮热",
        "en": "Yin-deficient fever with steaming-bone tidal fever"
      },
      {
        "zh": "失眠多梦，遗精",
        "en": "Insomnia, excessive dreaming, and seminal emission"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚寒泄泻及阳虚者忌服。性凉滑利，便溏腹泻者慎用，恐滑肠致泻加重。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–12g。生用清热力胜，酒制补肝肾力强。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生女贞子",
        "method": "净制晒干",
        "effect": "清虚热、明目力胜"
      },
      {
        "name": "酒女贞子",
        "method": "黄酒拌蒸",
        "effect": "增强补肝肾、乌须发之效，缓和滑肠之性"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品性凉而润滑，脾胃虚寒、便溏腹泻者忌用，可加重泄泻。临床多与旱莲草配伍组成二至丸，相须为用，补益力胜而不滋腻。生品有缓和通便之效，故便秘阴虚者用生品，便溏者宜酒制或慎用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "女贞实，味苦，平。主补中，安五脏，养精神，除百疾。久服肥健，轻身不老。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "木犀科植物女贞的干燥成熟果实。归肝、肾经。甘、苦，凉。为补肝肾阴、清虚热、明目乌发之常用药。《本经》原称\"女贞实\"，列为上品。常与墨旱莲配伍组成二至丸，为补阴名方。",
    "description_en": "The dried ripe fruit of Ligustrum lucidum (Oleaceae). Enters the Liver and Kidney channels. Sweet, bitter, and cool; a commonly used herb to enrich Liver-Kidney yin, clear deficiency heat, brighten the eyes, and darken the hair. Listed as a superior-grade herb in the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing under the name 'nü zhen shi.' Frequently paired with Mo Han Lian (Eclipta) in the famous Er Zhi Wan, a classic yin-tonic formula.",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "oleanolic acid",
          "name_zh": "齐墩果酸",
          "category": "pentacyclic triterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "specnuezhenide",
          "name_zh": "特女贞苷",
          "category": "secoiridoid glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "nuezhenoside",
          "category": "secoiridoid glycoside"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "女贞子含齐墩果酸、特女贞苷等三萜与环烯醚萜类，现代研究报道免疫调节、保肝、降血糖血脂及抗氧化作用，与传统滋补肝肾之功相应。",
        "en": "Ligustrum fruit contains oleanolic acid and secoiridoid glycosides such as specnuezhenide, with reported immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, lipid-lowering, and antioxidant effects in line with its traditional liver-kidney yin tonifying use."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝肾阴虚之头晕、耳鸣、须发早白",
          "indication_en": "Liver-kidney yin deficiency with dizziness, tinnitus, premature graying",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "化疗后白细胞减少辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct for chemotherapy-induced leukopenia",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性肝炎肝功能异常",
          "indication_en": "Chronic hepatitis with abnormal liver function",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载女贞子性平，为平补肝肾之佳品，与旱莲草合用（二至丸）。",
          "note_en": "Bensky describes Ligustrum as a neutral, gentle liver-kidney tonic classically paired with Eclipta (Er Zhi Wan)."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 综述齐墩果酸具保肝降酶及抗氧化作用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen summarize oleanolic acid's hepatoprotective, transaminase-lowering, and antioxidant activity."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "e_jiao",
    "slug": "e-jiao",
    "name_zh": "阿胶",
    "name_pinyin": "Ē Jiāo",
    "name_en": "Donkey-Hide Gelatin",
    "name_latin": "Asini Corii Colla",
    "category": "补血药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补血滋阴",
        "en": "Tonify the blood and nourish yin"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润燥止血",
        "en": "Moisten dryness and stop bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "滋阴润肺",
        "en": "Nourish yin and moisten the Lung"
      },
      {
        "zh": "安胎养血",
        "en": "Calm the fetus and nourish blood"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "血虚萎黄，眩晕心悸",
        "en": "Blood deficiency with sallow complexion, dizziness, and palpitations"
      },
      {
        "zh": "吐血衄血，便血崩漏",
        "en": "Hematemesis, epistaxis, blood in the stool, and uterine bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "妊娠胎漏下血",
        "en": "Threatened miscarriage with vaginal bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴虚心烦不眠",
        "en": "Yin deficiency with vexation and insomnia"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺燥咳嗽，痰中带血",
        "en": "Dry cough with blood-streaked sputum from Lung dryness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热病伤阴，虚风内动",
        "en": "Yin damaged by febrile disease with internal stirring of deficiency wind"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阿胶滋腻碍胃，脾胃虚弱、纳差便溏、湿浊中阻、痰湿内盛者忌用或慎用。外感初起者亦不宜单用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 5,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "入汤剂宜烊化兑服；亦可入丸散膏剂。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "阿胶",
        "pinyin": "Ē Jiāo",
        "method": "取驴皮经漂泡去毛后，加水煎煮浓缩而成胶块，阴凉处干燥",
        "effect": "补血滋阴，润燥止血"
      },
      {
        "name": "阿胶珠",
        "pinyin": "Ē Jiāo Zhū",
        "method": "蛤粉炒（或蒲黄炒）成珠",
        "effect": "矫其滋腻，便于入丸散；蛤粉炒长于润肺化痰，蒲黄炒长于止血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "阿胶性质滋腻，长期或大量服用易碍脾胃运化，宜配伍陈皮、砂仁等行气化湿之品。脾虚湿盛者非宜。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "上品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主心腹内崩，劳极洒洒如疟状，腰腹痛，四肢酸疼，女子下血，安胎。久服轻身益气。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "马科动物驴的干燥皮经煎煮浓缩制成的固体胶。归肺、肝、肾经。为补血止血、滋阴润燥之要药，妇科调经安胎常用，与熟地、当归、白芍同为补血四要。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "collagen-derived peptides and amino acids",
          "name_zh": "胶原水解肽与氨基酸",
          "category": "protein/peptide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "glycine, proline, hydroxyproline",
          "category": "amino acids"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "trace minerals (Fe, Cu, Zn)",
          "category": "trace elements"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "阿胶为驴皮熬制胶块，主含胶原水解肽、多种氨基酸与微量元素，药理示其促进造血、止血、免疫调节与抗贫血作用。",
        "en": "Ejiao is gelatin prepared from donkey hide, rich in collagen-derived peptides, amino acids and trace minerals; pharmacology shows hematopoietic support, hemostatic, immunomodulatory and antianemic effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "血虚萎黄、缺铁性贫血辅助",
          "indication_en": "Blood deficiency and iron-deficiency anemia (adjunct)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "崩漏、月经过多",
          "indication_en": "Uterine bleeding and menorrhagia",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "化疗后血小板、白细胞减少",
          "indication_en": "Chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia and leukopenia",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定阿胶须以驴皮熬制，并以特征肽段 DNA/肽组学方法进行真伪鉴别。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia requires donkey-hide origin; species identification by characteristic peptide or DNA markers."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "为补血止血要药，常与当归、熟地配伍；脾胃虚弱者宜配健脾药以防滋腻。",
          "note_en": "Key blood-tonifying and hemostatic herb; often paired with danggui and shudi; combine with spleen-supporting herbs if digestion is weak."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "性黏腻，脾胃虚弱、呕吐泄泻者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Cloying nature; use cautiously in weak digestion, vomiting or diarrhea."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "he_shou_wu",
    "slug": "he-shou-wu",
    "name_zh": "何首乌",
    "name_pinyin": "Hé Shǒu Wū",
    "name_en": "Fleeceflower Root",
    "name_latin": "Polygoni Multiflori Radix",
    "category": "补血药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "sweet",
      "astringent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补肝肾，益精血（制用）",
        "en": "Tonify Liver and Kidney, augment essence and blood (prepared form)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "乌须发，强筋骨",
        "en": "Darken hair and strengthen sinews and bones"
      },
      {
        "zh": "化浊降脂",
        "en": "Resolve turbidity and reduce blood lipids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "解毒消痈，截疟，润肠通便（生用）",
        "en": "Resolve toxicity and reduce sores, interrupt malaria, and moisten the intestines (raw form)"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肝肾不足，精血亏虚，眩晕耳鸣",
        "en": "Liver-Kidney insufficiency with essence-blood deficiency, dizziness and tinnitus"
      },
      {
        "zh": "须发早白，腰膝酸软",
        "en": "Premature graying of hair, soreness and weakness of the lower back and knees"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肢体麻木，崩漏带下",
        "en": "Numbness of the limbs, uterine bleeding and abnormal vaginal discharge"
      },
      {
        "zh": "高脂血症（制何首乌）",
        "en": "Hyperlipidemia (prepared form)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "久疟体虚，痈疽瘰疬（生何首乌）",
        "en": "Chronic malaria with bodily depletion, carbuncles and scrofula (raw form)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肠燥便秘（生何首乌）",
        "en": "Constipation due to intestinal dryness (raw form)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "大便溏泄、湿痰内盛者不宜用。生何首乌有滑肠润下之力，脾虚便溏者忌生用。生品有肝毒性报告，临床补益用必须用制何首乌（黑豆汁九蒸九晒），不可混用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–12g。补益用制何首乌；解毒、润肠、截疟用生何首乌。不可长期超量服用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生何首乌",
        "pinyin": "Shēng Hé Shǒu Wū",
        "method": "原药材切片晒干，生用",
        "effect": "解毒消痈，截疟，润肠通便"
      },
      {
        "name": "制何首乌",
        "pinyin": "Zhì Hé Shǒu Wū",
        "method": "黑豆汁拌匀，九蒸九晒（传统制法），或高压蒸制至黑润内外一致",
        "effect": "去其滑肠之性，转为补肝肾、益精血、乌须发之要药"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "现代药理及临床报告显示何首乌（尤其是生品及未规范炮制品）可引起药物性肝损伤（DILI），表现为转氨酶升高、黄疸甚至肝衰竭。临床应严格区分生制，使用规范炮制的制何首乌，避免长期大剂量服用，肝功能异常者禁用，服药期间应监测肝功能。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "passage": "何首乌，气温味苦涩，苦补肾，温补肝，能收敛精气，所以养血益肝，固精益肾，健筋骨，乌髭发，为滋补良药，不寒不燥，功在地黄、天门冬诸药之上。",
        "source_chapter": "草部·蔓草类"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蓼科植物何首乌的干燥块根。归肝、心、肾经。生用解毒、润肠、截疟；制用补肝肾、益精血、乌须发。首载于唐《何首乌录》及《开宝本草》，李时珍《本草纲目》详述其制法与功用。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "2,3,5,4'-tetrahydroxystilbene-2-O-beta-D-glucoside (THSG)",
          "name_zh": "二苯乙烯苷",
          "category": "stilbene glycoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "emodin",
          "name_zh": "大黄素",
          "category": "anthraquinone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "physcion",
          "name_zh": "大黄素甲醚",
          "category": "anthraquinone"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "何首乌主含二苯乙烯苷（THSG）与蒽醌类（大黄素、大黄素甲醚）；制首乌经黑豆汁九蒸九晒后蒽醌降低，补肝肾、益精血作用增强；生首乌蒽醌含量高，偏于解毒通便。",
        "en": "Heshouwu contains stilbene glycoside (THSG) and anthraquinones (emodin, physcion); processed heshouwu (steamed with black-bean juice) has lower anthraquinones and tonifies liver-kidney and essence; raw heshouwu retains higher anthraquinones and is used to resolve toxin and move stool."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝肾阴虚、早白发、脱发",
          "indication_en": "Liver-kidney yin deficiency, premature graying and alopecia",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "高脂血症",
          "indication_en": "Hyperlipidemia",
          "evidence_level": "preclinical"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "血虚便秘（生首乌）",
          "indication_en": "Blood-deficiency constipation (raw form)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以二苯乙烯苷与结合蒽醌含量作为质量指标，并区分生首乌与制首乌用量。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses stilbene glycoside and combined anthraquinone content as quality markers and distinguishes dosages for raw vs processed forms."
        },
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "多国监管机构（中、英、加、澳等）发出何首乌肝毒性警示，尤以生品与长期大剂量风险较高。",
          "note_en": "Regulators in China, UK, Canada, Australia and elsewhere have issued hepatotoxicity warnings, especially for raw form and prolonged high-dose use."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "肝病患者禁用；出现转氨酶升高、黄疸时应立即停药。",
          "note_en": "Contraindicated in hepatic disease; discontinue immediately with rising transaminases or jaundice."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "long_yan_rou",
    "slug": "long-yan-rou",
    "name_zh": "龙眼肉",
    "name_pinyin": "Lóng Yǎn Ròu",
    "name_en": "Longan Arillus",
    "name_latin": "Longan Arillus",
    "category": "补血药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补益心脾",
        "en": "Tonify the Heart and Spleen"
      },
      {
        "zh": "养血安神",
        "en": "Nourish blood and calm the spirit"
      },
      {
        "zh": "益气生血",
        "en": "Augment qi and generate blood"
      },
      {
        "zh": "健脾止泻（轻度）",
        "en": "Strengthen the Spleen (mild)"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "心脾两虚，气血不足",
        "en": "Dual deficiency of Heart and Spleen with qi and blood insufficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "心悸怔忡，失眠健忘",
        "en": "Palpitations, insomnia, and forgetfulness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "血虚萎黄",
        "en": "Sallow complexion from blood deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "思虑过度，劳伤心脾",
        "en": "Excessive worry damaging the Heart and Spleen"
      },
      {
        "zh": "妇人崩漏，气血亏虚",
        "en": "Women with uterine bleeding and qi-blood depletion"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "性温味甘助湿生热，脾胃湿盛、痰饮停滞、舌苔厚腻、内有郁火、外感未解、小儿疳积及糖尿病患者均不宜服。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 15,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服9–15g；大剂量可至30g。亦可入膏剂、酒剂、单味泡服。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "龙眼肉",
        "pinyin": "Lóng Yǎn Ròu",
        "method": "取龙眼成熟果实，去壳去核，焙干或晒干假种皮（果肉）",
        "effect": "补心脾，益气血，安神"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "甘温滋腻，过量易助湿生痰、动火上炎，糖尿病患者及湿热体质慎用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主五脏邪气，安志厌食。久服强魂聪明，轻身不老，通神明。一名益智。生山谷。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "无患子科植物龙眼的假种皮。归心、脾经。为补益心脾、养血安神之佳品，归脾汤中与人参、黄芪、当归同用，治思虑伤脾、心血不足之心悸失眠。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "glucose and sucrose",
          "name_zh": "葡萄糖与蔗糖",
          "category": "sugars",
          "notes": "major components of dried aril"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "adenosine",
          "name_zh": "腺苷",
          "category": "nucleoside"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "vitamins (B-complex, C) and amino acids",
          "name_zh": "维生素（B、C 族）和氨基酸",
          "category": "vitamin/amino acid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "龙眼肉富含糖类、多糖及微量生物活性成分，具补血养心、安神及温和免疫调节作用。",
        "en": "Longan aril is rich in sugars, polysaccharides, and minor bioactives that nourish blood, calm the spirit, and provide mild immunomodulation."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "心脾两虚失眠健忘",
          "indication_en": "Heart-spleen deficiency insomnia and forgetfulness",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "产后及病后气血不足调理",
          "indication_en": "Postpartum and post-illness qi-blood recovery",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "龙眼肉甘温补益心脾、养血安神，归脾汤主要药味。",
          "note_en": "Sweet and warm — tonifies heart and spleen and nourishes blood to calm the spirit; key ingredient of Gui Pi Tang."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "多糖具抗氧化及免疫调节活性；腺苷可能参与安神作用。",
          "note_en": "Polysaccharides show antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity; adenosine may contribute to the calming effect."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以性状和浸出物为质量指标，糖尿病患者慎用。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses macroscopic and extractive quality markers; caution in diabetic patients due to sugar content."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "xi_yang_shen",
    "slug": "xi-yang-shen",
    "name_zh": "西洋参",
    "name_pinyin": "Xī Yáng Shēn",
    "name_en": "American Ginseng",
    "name_latin": "Panacis Quinquefolii Radix",
    "category": "补气药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补气养阴",
        "en": "Tonify qi and nourish yin"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清热生津",
        "en": "Clear heat and generate fluids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肺止咳",
        "en": "Moisten the Lung and stop cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宁神益智",
        "en": "Calm the spirit and benefit cognition"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "气阴两伤，烦倦口渴",
        "en": "Dual injury of qi and yin with fatigue, vexation, and thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热病后期，余热未清，气津两伤",
        "en": "Late-stage febrile disease with lingering heat and dual injury of qi and fluids"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺虚久咳，咳血咯血",
        "en": "Chronic cough from Lung deficiency, hemoptysis"
      },
      {
        "zh": "内热消渴，口干舌燥",
        "en": "Internal heat wasting-thirst with dryness of the mouth and tongue"
      },
      {
        "zh": "虚热烦倦，少气懒言",
        "en": "Deficiency heat with vexation, fatigue, and shortness of breath"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "性凉，中阳衰微、胃有寒湿、阳气不足、寒证泄泻者忌服。不宜与藜芦同用（十八反）。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 6,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–6g，另煎兑服为佳；或研末吞服，每次0.5–1g。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "西洋参",
        "pinyin": "Xī Yáng Shēn",
        "method": "原药材切薄片晾干，生用",
        "effect": "补气养阴，清火生津"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "凉润之品，阳虚体质及寒湿内盛者不宜。服药期间忌饮浓茶及食萝卜，以免减弱补益之效。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "passage": "西洋参，苦微甘，寒。味厚气薄，补肺降火，生津液，除烦倦。虚而有火者相宜。",
        "source_chapter": "本草从新·山草部"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "五加科植物西洋参的干燥根，原产北美，清乾隆年间传入中国。归心、肺、肾经。性凉而补，为气阴两虚有热者要药；与人参（性温）相对，凉补不温燥，适用于火盛阴伤之虚证。首载于《本草从新》（吴仪洛，1757）。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "ginsenoside Rb1",
          "name_zh": "人参皂苷Rb1",
          "category": "protopanaxadiol saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ginsenoside Re",
          "category": "protopanaxatriol saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ginsenoside Rg1",
          "category": "protopanaxatriol saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "pseudoginsenoside F11",
          "name_zh": "拟人参皂苷F11",
          "category": "ocotillol-type saponin (marker of P. quinquefolius)"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "西洋参主含人参皂苷Rb1、Re、Rg1及拟人参皂苷F11（区别于人参的标志物），具有补气养阴、抗疲劳、免疫调节及降血糖作用。",
        "en": "American ginseng contains ginsenosides Rb1, Re, Rg1 and pseudoginsenoside F11 (distinguishing it from Asian ginseng), with qi-and-yin tonifying, anti-fatigue, immunomodulatory and hypoglycemic effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "预防上呼吸道感染",
          "indication_en": "Prevention of upper respiratory infections",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "气阴两虚之口干乏力、虚热烦倦",
          "indication_en": "Qi-and-yin deficiency with dry mouth, fatigue and deficient heat",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "2型糖尿病辅助降糖",
          "indication_en": "Adjunctive glucose-lowering in type 2 diabetes",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO专论收录Radix Panacis Quinquefolii，用于气阴两虚及作为补益剂。",
          "note_en": "WHO monograph lists Radix Panacis Quinquefolii as a qi-and-yin tonic."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "可能影响华法林药效；与降糖药合用应监测血糖。",
          "note_en": "May alter warfarin effect; monitor blood glucose when combined with hypoglycemic agents."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "拟人参皂苷F11为西洋参特征性成分，可用于与人参鉴别。",
          "note_en": "Pseudoginsenoside F11 is a characteristic marker distinguishing American ginseng from Asian ginseng."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "tai_zi_shen",
    "slug": "tai-zi-shen",
    "name_zh": "太子参",
    "name_pinyin": "Tài Zǐ Shēn",
    "name_en": "Pseudostellaria Root",
    "name_latin": "Pseudostellariae Radix",
    "category": "补气药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bitter"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "益气健脾",
        "en": "Augment qi and strengthen the Spleen"
      },
      {
        "zh": "生津润肺",
        "en": "Generate fluids and moisten the Lung"
      },
      {
        "zh": "补气养阴",
        "en": "Tonify qi and nourish yin"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清补不燥",
        "en": "Provide clear, gentle tonification without dryness"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脾虚体倦，食欲不振",
        "en": "Spleen deficiency with fatigue and poor appetite"
      },
      {
        "zh": "病后虚弱，气阴不足",
        "en": "Post-illness debility with qi and yin insufficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气阴两伤，自汗口渴",
        "en": "Dual injury of qi and yin with spontaneous sweating and thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺燥干咳，少气",
        "en": "Dry cough from Lung dryness, shortness of breath"
      },
      {
        "zh": "小儿虚汗，营养不良",
        "en": "Spontaneous sweating and malnutrition in children"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "性平偏凉，作用平和，无明显禁忌；表邪未解、湿盛中满者不宜。不宜与藜芦同用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 30,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服9–30g。作用较人参、党参平和，剂量可适当加大。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "太子参",
        "pinyin": "Tài Zǐ Shēn",
        "method": "夏季茎叶大部分枯萎时采挖，洗净，除去须根，置沸水中略烫后晒干",
        "effect": "益气健脾，生津润肺"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "性味平和，补力较弱，适用于不耐温补峻补者，尤宜小儿、热病后及气阴两虚之轻证。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "passage": "太子参，气味甘、微苦，无毒。补气生津，体润性和，治脾虚倦怠，肺虚咳嗽，最宜小儿。",
        "source_chapter": "本草从新（清·吴仪洛）"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "石竹科植物孩儿参的干燥块根，又名孩儿参。归脾、肺经。补气生津，性味平和，作用清淡，被誉为清补之品，最宜于气阴两虚之轻证及小儿、热病后调理。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "Pseudostellaria polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "太子参多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "heterophyllin B",
          "name_zh": "太子参环肽B",
          "category": "cyclic peptide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "pseudostellarin A",
          "category": "cyclic peptide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "saponins (minor)",
          "category": "triterpene saponin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "太子参主含多糖和环肽类化合物（太子参环肽），具有补气生津、免疫调节及抗疲劳作用，性较人参平和。",
        "en": "Pseudostellaria root contains polysaccharides and cyclic peptides (heterophyllins), with qi-tonifying, fluid-generating, immunomodulatory and anti-fatigue effects; gentler than Panax ginseng."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾肺气阴两虚、倦怠乏力",
          "indication_en": "Spleen-Lung qi and yin deficiency with fatigue",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "儿童及体弱者补益",
          "indication_en": "Gentle tonic for children and frail patients",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "补气生津，性平不燥，常代人参用于气阴两虚且不耐温补者。",
          "note_en": "Tonifies qi and generates fluids; neutral and non-drying, often substituted for ginseng in patients intolerant of warming tonics."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "太子参环肽类为其特征性成分，显示免疫调节活性。",
          "note_en": "Characteristic cyclic peptides (heterophyllins) demonstrate immunomodulatory activity in pharmacology studies."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "wu_mei",
    "slug": "wu-mei",
    "name_zh": "乌梅",
    "name_pinyin": "Wū Méi",
    "name_en": "Mume Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Mume Fructus",
    "category": "收涩药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sour",
      "astringent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "敛肺止咳",
        "en": "Astringe the Lung and stop cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "涩肠止泻",
        "en": "Bind the intestines and stop diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "安蛔止痛",
        "en": "Calm roundworms and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "生津止渴",
        "en": "Generate fluids and quench thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止血",
        "en": "Stop bleeding"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肺虚久咳，干咳少痰",
        "en": "Chronic cough from Lung deficiency with little phlegm"
      },
      {
        "zh": "久泻久痢",
        "en": "Chronic diarrhea and dysentery"
      },
      {
        "zh": "蛔厥腹痛，呕吐（蛔虫病）",
        "en": "Roundworm-induced abdominal pain and vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "虚热消渴",
        "en": "Deficiency-heat wasting-thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "便血尿血，崩漏下血",
        "en": "Bloody stool, hematuria, and uterine bleeding"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "酸收敛邪，外感风寒咳嗽、湿热泻痢、积滞内停未清者忌服。胃酸过多者亦慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–12g，大剂量可用至30g。止血宜炒炭用。安蛔常用乌梅丸方。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "乌梅",
        "pinyin": "Wū Méi",
        "method": "夏季果实近成熟时采收，低温烘干后闷至色变黑",
        "effect": "敛肺涩肠，安蛔生津"
      },
      {
        "name": "乌梅炭",
        "pinyin": "Wū Méi Tàn",
        "method": "炒炭存性",
        "effect": "增强涩肠止泻、止血之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "酸涩收敛之品，凡邪盛实证、表邪未解者忌用，以防闭门留寇。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味酸，平。主下气，除热烦满，安心，肢体痛，偏枯不仁，死肌，去青黑痣，恶疾。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蔷薇科植物梅的干燥近成熟果实。归肝、脾、肺、大肠经。酸涩平和，敛肺止咳，涩肠止泻，安蛔生津；为治蛔厥之要药，张仲景乌梅丸即以本品为君。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "citric acid",
          "name_zh": "柠檬酸",
          "category": "organic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "malic acid",
          "category": "organic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "succinic acid",
          "category": "organic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "oleanolic acid",
          "category": "triterpenoid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "乌梅富含多种有机酸（柠檬酸、苹果酸）及三萜酸，具有抑菌、驱蛔、收敛止泻及生津止渴作用。",
        "en": "Mume fruit is rich in organic acids (citric, malic) and triterpene acids with antimicrobial, ascaricidal, astringent antidiarrheal and thirst-relieving effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "久咳不止、久泻久痢",
          "indication_en": "Chronic cough and chronic diarrhea/dysentery",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "蛔厥腹痛（乌梅丸）",
          "indication_en": "Roundworm colic (as in Wu Mei Wan)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "虚热消渴、津伤口渴",
          "indication_en": "Deficient-heat wasting-thirst and fluid damage",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "敛肺止咳、涩肠止泻、安蛔止痛、生津止渴，为乌梅丸君药。",
          "note_en": "Astringes the Lung, binds intestines, calms roundworms, and generates fluids; sovereign herb in Wu Mei Wan."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "乌梅水煎液在体外对多种肠道致病菌有抑制作用。",
          "note_en": "Mume decoction inhibits multiple enteric pathogens in vitro."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "wu_bei_zi",
    "slug": "wu-bei-zi",
    "name_zh": "五倍子",
    "name_pinyin": "Wǔ Bèi Zi",
    "name_en": "Chinese Gall",
    "name_latin": "Galla Chinensis",
    "category": "收涩药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "sour",
      "astringent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "敛肺降火",
        "en": "Astringe the Lung and direct fire downward"
      },
      {
        "zh": "涩肠止泻",
        "en": "Bind the intestines and stop diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "固精止遗",
        "en": "Secure essence and stop seminal emission"
      },
      {
        "zh": "敛汗止血",
        "en": "Astringe sweat and stop bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "收湿敛疮",
        "en": "Absorb dampness and constrain sores (external use)"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "肺虚久咳，自汗盗汗",
        "en": "Chronic cough from Lung deficiency, spontaneous and night sweats"
      },
      {
        "zh": "久泻久痢，脱肛",
        "en": "Chronic diarrhea, dysentery, and rectal prolapse"
      },
      {
        "zh": "遗精滑精，带下",
        "en": "Seminal emission, spermatorrhea, and abnormal vaginal discharge"
      },
      {
        "zh": "崩漏下血，便血痔血",
        "en": "Uterine bleeding, blood in the stool, and hemorrhoidal bleeding"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿疮流水，痈肿疮毒（外用）",
        "en": "Weeping eczema and toxic sores (topical use)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "酸涩收敛之力较强，外感咳嗽、湿热泻痢、积滞未清者忌服。内服剂量不宜过大，以免引起恶心呕吐。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 6,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "内服煎汤3–6g，或入丸散，每次1–1.5g。外用适量，研末撒或煎汤洗。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "五倍子",
        "pinyin": "Wǔ Bèi Zi",
        "method": "秋季采收虫瘿，蒸至表面呈灰色、内部蚜虫死后晒干",
        "effect": "敛肺涩肠，固精止血"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "含大量鞣酸（约60–70%），不宜与铁剂、生物碱、蛋白类药物同服。大剂量内服可刺激胃肠，引起恶心呕吐及肝肾损害，应严格控制剂量。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "passage": "五倍子，咸酸，平，无毒。敛肺降火，化痰饮，止咳嗽，消渴盗汗，呕吐失血久痢，黄病心腹痛，小儿夜啼，治眼赤湿烂，消肿毒喉痹，敛溃疮金疮，收脱肛子肠坠下。",
        "source_chapter": "虫部·虫之化"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "漆树科植物盐肤木、青麸杨等叶上由五倍子蚜寄生形成的虫瘿。归肺、大肠、肾经。酸涩性寒，既能敛肺降火，又能涩肠固精止血，内服外用皆宜，为收涩要药。首载于《本草拾遗》，《本草纲目》详记其功。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "gallotannins",
          "name_zh": "没食子鞣质",
          "category": "hydrolyzable tannin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "gallic acid",
          "name_zh": "没食子酸",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "methyl gallate",
          "category": "phenolic ester"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ellagic acid (trace)",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "五倍子含丰富鞣质（60%以上）及其水解产物没食子酸，具有收敛、止血、抗菌、抗溃疡及抗病毒作用。",
        "en": "Chinese gall contains abundant gallotannins (>60%) and gallic acid, with astringent, hemostatic, antibacterial, anti-ulcer and antiviral effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性腹泻、久痢",
          "indication_en": "Chronic diarrhea and prolonged dysentery",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "局部外用治烧伤、口疮、痔疮出血",
          "indication_en": "Topical use for burns, mouth ulcers and hemorrhoidal bleeding",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "敛肺降火、涩肠止泻、固精止遗、敛汗止血，为主要收涩药。",
          "note_en": "Astringes the Lung, binds intestines, secures essence, restrains sweat and stops bleeding; a principal astringent."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "鞣质能与蛋白沉淀形成保护膜，广泛用于创面及黏膜收敛。",
          "note_en": "Tannins precipitate proteins to form a protective coat, underlying its wound and mucosal astringent applications."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定五倍子含鞣质（以没食子酸计）不得少于50.0%。",
          "note_en": "The Chinese Pharmacopoeia requires not less than 50.0% tannins (calculated as gallic acid) in Chinese gall."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "rou_dou_kou",
    "slug": "rou-dou-kou",
    "name_zh": "肉豆蔻",
    "name_pinyin": "Ròu Dòu Kòu",
    "name_en": "Nutmeg",
    "name_latin": "Myristicae Semen",
    "category": "收涩药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "pungent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "温中行气",
        "en": "Warm the middle and move qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "涩肠止泻",
        "en": "Bind the intestines and stop diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "开胃消食",
        "en": "Open the appetite and disperse food stagnation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "暖脾胃",
        "en": "Warm the Spleen and Stomach"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脾胃虚寒，久泻不止",
        "en": "Spleen-Stomach deficiency cold with chronic, unrelenting diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "五更泄泻（肾泻）",
        "en": "Daybreak diarrhea (Kidney diarrhea)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脘腹胀痛，食少呕吐",
        "en": "Epigastric and abdominal distension and pain, poor appetite, vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宿食不消",
        "en": "Undigested food retention"
      },
      {
        "zh": "完谷不化",
        "en": "Diarrhea with undigested food"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "湿热泻痢、肠胃实热、阴虚火旺者忌服。生肉豆蔻含挥发油（肉豆蔻醚等），过量服用可致中毒，必须煨制后入药；不可生服，不可超量。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–9g，入丸散每次0.5–1g。必须煨用，去油后入药。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "煨肉豆蔻",
        "pinyin": "Wēi Ròu Dòu Kòu",
        "method": "面粉加水拌和，包裹肉豆蔻，置热麸皮中煨至面皮焦黄，取出去面，碾去外壳",
        "effect": "煨制可去除大部分挥发油，减轻刺激性与毒性，增强涩肠止泻之功"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "生肉豆蔻含肉豆蔻醚（myristicin）等挥发油成分，过量可致幻、恶心、呕吐、心动过速，甚至昏迷。临床须用煨制品，控制剂量在常用范围内，严禁生用或大剂量服用。孕妇慎用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "passage": "肉豆蔻，辛，温，无毒。暖脾胃，固大肠，止虚泻冷痢、心腹胀痛、宿食不消、小儿乳霍。",
        "source_chapter": "果部·夷果类"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "肉豆蔻科植物肉豆蔻的干燥种仁。归脾、胃、大肠经。辛温芳香，温中涩肠，为治脾肾虚寒久泻、五更泄泻之要药，常与补骨脂、五味子、吴茱萸同用（四神丸）。临床必须煨制以减毒。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "myristicin",
          "name_zh": "肉豆蔻醚",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid (volatile oil)",
          "notes": "psychoactive at high doses; toxic"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "elemicin",
          "category": "phenylpropanoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "trimyristin (fixed oil)",
          "category": "triglyceride"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "肉豆蔻含挥发油（肉豆蔻醚、榄香素）及固定油，现代研究报道抗腹泻、抗菌、抗炎及中枢作用；过量有神经毒性及幻觉风险，故多煨用并严格控制剂量。",
        "en": "Nutmeg (Myristica) contains volatile oil rich in myristicin and elemicin plus a fixed oil (trimyristin), with antidiarrheal, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and central effects in preclinical work. Overdose risks neurotoxicity and hallucinations, so it is usually dry-roasted (wei) and dosed conservatively."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾肾阳虚五更泻、久泻",
          "indication_en": "Chronic diarrhea from spleen/kidney-yang deficiency (including daybreak diarrhea)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "脘腹冷痛、食欲不振",
          "indication_en": "Cold epigastric pain and poor appetite",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 强调肉豆蔻须煨去油方可内服以减毒，每日 3–6 g。",
          "note_en": "Bensky emphasizes that nutmeg should be dry-roasted to remove excess oil before oral use, daily dose 3–6 g."
        },
        {
          "source": "brinker_4e",
          "note_zh": "Brinker 记载肉豆蔻醚具单胺氧化酶抑制活性，大剂量（>5 g 粉末）可致幻觉、心动过速及肝毒性。",
          "note_en": "Brinker records that myristicin has MAO-inhibiting activity; large doses (>5 g powder) can cause hallucinations, tachycardia, and hepatotoxicity."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "jin_ying_zi",
    "slug": "jin-ying-zi",
    "name_zh": "金樱子",
    "name_pinyin": "Jīn Yīng Zǐ",
    "name_en": "Cherokee Rose Fruit",
    "name_latin": "Rosae Laevigatae Fructus",
    "category": "收涩药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sour",
      "sweet",
      "astringent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "固精缩尿",
        "en": "Secure essence and reduce urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "涩肠止泻",
        "en": "Bind the intestines and stop diarrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止带",
        "en": "Stop abnormal vaginal discharge"
      },
      {
        "zh": "益肾固本",
        "en": "Augment the Kidney and secure the root"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "遗精滑精",
        "en": "Seminal emission and spermatorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "遗尿尿频",
        "en": "Enuresis and frequent urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "崩漏带下",
        "en": "Uterine bleeding and abnormal vaginal discharge"
      },
      {
        "zh": "久泻久痢，脱肛",
        "en": "Chronic diarrhea, dysentery, and rectal prolapse"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肾虚不固诸证",
        "en": "Various conditions of Kidney deficiency with failure to consolidate"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "酸涩收敛之品，有实火、实邪及小便不利者忌服。外感未解、湿热下注者亦不宜用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–12g。亦可熬膏（金樱子膏）或入丸散。常与芡实同用为水陆二仙丹。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "金樱子",
        "pinyin": "Jīn Yīng Zǐ",
        "method": "10–11月果实成熟变红时采收，晒干，除去毛刺",
        "effect": "固精缩尿，涩肠止泻"
      },
      {
        "name": "金樱子膏",
        "pinyin": "Jīn Yīng Zǐ Gāo",
        "method": "去毛刺净果实加水熬煮，浓缩成膏",
        "effect": "便于久服，长于固肾涩精"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "酸涩之性较强，凡有实邪者忌服。表证未解或湿热未清者用之恐留邪。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "passage": "金樱子，酸涩，平，无毒。脾泄下利，止小便利，涩精气，久服令人耐寒轻身。",
        "source_chapter": "木部·灌木类"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "蔷薇科植物金樱子的干燥成熟果实。归肾、膀胱、大肠经。酸涩收敛，善能固精缩尿、涩肠止泻，为治肾虚滑脱诸证之要药，常与芡实相配（水陆二仙丹）治遗精、白浊、带下。首载于《蜀本草》。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian Editorial",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "hydrolysable tannins",
          "name_zh": "水解鞣质",
          "category": "polyphenol",
          "notes": "astringent principle"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "triterpenoids (tormentic, euscaphic acids)",
          "name_zh": "三萜类（委陵菜酸、野鸦椿酸）",
          "category": "triterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "organic acids (citric, malic)",
          "name_zh": "有机酸（柠檬酸、苹果酸）",
          "category": "organic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "vitamin C",
          "name_zh": "维生素 C",
          "category": "vitamin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "金樱子含鞣质、三萜及多糖，通过收敛固涩作用用于遗精、尿频、带下、久泻久痢等滑脱证。",
        "en": "Rosa laevigata contains tannins, triterpenes, and polysaccharides, with astringent/stabilizing action used for spermatorrhea, frequent urination, leukorrhea, and chronic diarrhea."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "慢性腹泻及肠易激",
          "indication_en": "Chronic diarrhea and irritable bowel",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "遗尿及尿频",
          "indication_en": "Enuresis and urinary frequency",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "金樱子酸涩收敛，固精缩尿止带止泻。",
          "note_en": "Sour and astringent — stabilizes essence, reduces urination, checks leukorrhea and diarrhea."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "鞣质沉淀黏膜蛋白形成保护膜，三萜成分显示抗氧化及免疫调节活性。",
          "note_en": "Tannins precipitate mucosal proteins forming a protective layer; triterpenes show antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以多糖和鞣质含量为质量指标。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses polysaccharide and tannin content as quality markers."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "zhu_ling",
    "slug": "zhu-ling",
    "name_zh": "猪苓",
    "name_pinyin": "Zhū Líng",
    "name_en": "Polyporus",
    "name_latin": "Polyporus umbellatus (sclerotium)",
    "category": "利水渗湿药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bland"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "利水渗湿",
        "en": "Promote urination and leach out dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通淋",
        "en": "Unblock painful urinary dribbling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利水消肿",
        "en": "Disinhibit water and reduce edema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "分消湿热",
        "en": "Separate and discharge damp-heat via the urine"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "小便不利，水肿胀满",
        "en": "Dysuria with edema and distension"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泄泻",
        "en": "Diarrhea from dampness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "淋浊带下",
        "en": "Painful urinary dribbling, turbid urine, and leukorrhea"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热黄疸",
        "en": "Damp-heat jaundice"
      },
      {
        "zh": "水热互结伤阴之小便不利",
        "en": "Dysuria from water and heat binding with yin injury"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "无水湿证者不宜。阴虚津液亏损而无水湿者慎用，以免耗伤阴液。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–12g；利水作用较茯苓强而无补益之功，不宜久服，以防伤阴。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生猪苓",
        "method": "洗净切片生用",
        "effect": "利水渗湿通淋，为临床常用形式"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品利水作用较强而无补益，阴虚无湿者及无水湿实证者不宜久用，以防耗伤津液。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味甘，平。主痎疟，解毒蛊注不祥，利水道。久服轻身耐老。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "多孔菌科真菌猪苓的干燥菌核。归肾、膀胱经。甘淡渗利，专走水道，利水渗湿之力较茯苓为胜，但无健脾补中之功，故专于祛邪而不补正。为《伤寒论》五苓散、猪苓汤等利水方的核心药物。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1998576",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian editorial team",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "polyporus polysaccharide (PPS)",
          "name_zh": "猪苓多糖",
          "category": "β-glucan polysaccharide",
          "notes": "principal immunomodulatory constituent"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "ergosterol",
          "name_zh": "麦角甾醇",
          "category": "sterol"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "polyporusterones",
          "name_zh": "猪苓酮",
          "category": "ergostane-type steroid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "biotin",
          "category": "vitamin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "猪苓主含猪苓多糖、麦角甾醇及猪苓酮等，药理示其利尿、免疫调节及辅助抗肿瘤作用，临床用于水肿、淋证及肿瘤辅助治疗。",
        "en": "Polyporus contains polyporus polysaccharide (PPS), ergosterol and polyporusterones; pharmacology shows diuretic, immunomodulatory and adjunctive antitumor effects, clinically used for edema, dysuria and as an oncology adjunct."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "水肿、小便不利",
          "indication_en": "Edema and dysuria",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝炎及肿瘤免疫辅助",
          "indication_en": "Adjunctive immunotherapy in hepatitis and oncology",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以麦角甾醇为含量测定指标，规定不得少于0.070%。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses ergosterol as the quality assay marker (≥0.070%)."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出猪苓利水力峻而不补，与茯苓相须时常用于水湿内停之剂。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes polyporus has strong diuretic action without tonification, and is commonly paired with Fu Ling in water-dampness formulas."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述猪苓多糖作为免疫调节剂用于慢性肝炎和肿瘤辅助治疗的临床研究。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite clinical studies of polyporus polysaccharide as an immunomodulator in chronic hepatitis and cancer adjunct therapy."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "bie_jia",
    "slug": "bie-jia",
    "name_zh": "鳖甲",
    "name_pinyin": "Biē Jiǎ",
    "name_en": "Turtle Shell",
    "name_latin": "Trionycis Carapax (Trionyx sinensis, carapace)",
    "category": "补阴药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "salty"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "滋阴潜阳",
        "en": "Enrich yin and subdue ascendant yang"
      },
      {
        "zh": "退热除蒸",
        "en": "Reduce fever and eliminate steaming bone"
      },
      {
        "zh": "软坚散结",
        "en": "Soften hardness and dissipate nodules"
      },
      {
        "zh": "搜剔阴分伏邪",
        "en": "Search out and dislodge pathogens lurking in the yin level"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "阴虚发热，骨蒸劳热",
        "en": "Yin-deficiency fever and steaming-bone taxation heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温病后期邪伏阴分，夜热早凉",
        "en": "Late-stage warm disease with heat hidden in the yin aspect — fever at night, cool by morning"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热病伤阴，虚风内动",
        "en": "Yin injury from febrile disease with internal stirring of deficiency wind"
      },
      {
        "zh": "癥瘕积聚，久疟疟母",
        "en": "Abdominal masses and chronic malarial splenomegaly (疟母)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "经闭经少属血瘀",
        "en": "Amenorrhea or scanty menses from blood stasis"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "脾胃虚寒、食少便溏及孕妇忌用。无阴虚发热或血瘀癥瘕之实证者不宜。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 24,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服9–24g，宜打碎先煎；滋阴潜阳多生用，软坚散结多醋炙。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生鳖甲",
        "method": "打碎先煎",
        "effect": "长于滋阴潜阳、退热除蒸"
      },
      {
        "name": "醋鳖甲",
        "method": "砂炒后醋淬",
        "effect": "增强入肝软坚散结之功，用于癥瘕积聚、疟母"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "动物来源药材，须使用合法养殖或经认证来源以避免野生种资源问题。质重滋腻，脾胃虚寒、痰湿内盛及孕妇忌用。必先煎以利有效成分溶出。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shen_nong_ben_cao_jing",
        "classification": "中品",
        "passage": "味咸，平。主心腹癥瘕坚积，寒热，去痞息肉、阴蚀、痔恶肉。"
      },
      {
        "text_key": "wen_bing_tiao_bian",
        "classification": "下焦篇",
        "passage": "青蒿不能直入阴分，有鳖甲领之入也；鳖甲不能独出阳分，赖青蒿领之出也。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "鳖科动物中华鳖的背甲。归肝、肾经。咸寒入阴，既能滋阴潜阳、退虚热除骨蒸，又善搜剔阴分之伏邪以治温病后期夜热早凉之证，复能软坚散结以消癥瘕、疟母。吴鞠通青蒿鳖甲汤以青蒿、鳖甲相须为用，取「先入后出」之妙。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q42395",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian editorial team",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "animal gelatin (collagen hydrolysate)",
          "name_zh": "动物胶原（明胶）",
          "category": "protein"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "calcium carbonate and phosphate",
          "name_zh": "碳酸钙、磷酸钙",
          "category": "mineral"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "free amino acids (17+)",
          "name_zh": "游离氨基酸",
          "category": "amino acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "iodine and trace elements",
          "name_zh": "碘及微量元素",
          "category": "mineral"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "鳖甲主含动物胶原蛋白、碳酸钙、多种氨基酸和微量元素，药理示其免疫调节、抗纤维化（肝纤维化）、软坚散结与提高血浆蛋白作用。",
        "en": "Turtle carapace contains collagen, calcium salts, free amino acids and trace elements; pharmacology shows immunomodulatory, anti-hepatic-fibrosis, mass-softening and plasma-protein-raising effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "肝硬化及肝纤维化辅助（鳖甲软肝片、鳖甲煎丸）",
          "indication_en": "Adjunct in hepatic fibrosis and cirrhosis (Bie Jia Ruan Gan Pian, Bie Jia Jian Wan)",
          "evidence_level": "clinical-trial"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "阴虚内热、骨蒸潮热",
          "indication_en": "Yin-deficiency heat and steaming-bone tidal fever",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》收载鳖甲及鳖甲胶，规定来源为鳖科动物鳖的背甲。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists Bie Jia and Bie Jia Jiao with Trionyx sinensis carapace as the official source."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 强调鳖甲咸寒入肝肾，既滋阴潜阳又软坚散结，是青蒿鳖甲汤及鳖甲煎丸的核心药物。",
          "note_en": "Bensky emphasizes that Bie Jia is salty-cool entering Liver and Kidney, enriching yin, subduing yang and softening masses — the core herb of Qing Hao Bie Jia Tang and Bie Jia Jian Wan."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述临床研究示鳖甲制剂在肝纤维化逆转中的辅助作用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite clinical studies of Bie Jia preparations as adjuncts in reversing hepatic fibrosis."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "yi_tang",
    "slug": "yi-tang",
    "name_zh": "饴糖",
    "name_pinyin": "Yí Táng",
    "name_en": "Maltose Syrup",
    "name_latin": "Saccharum Granorum (Maltosum)",
    "category": "补气药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补中益气",
        "en": "Tonify the middle and augment qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "缓急止痛",
        "en": "Moderate urgency and alleviate pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "润肺止咳",
        "en": "Moisten the Lung and stop cough"
      },
      {
        "zh": "建中补虚",
        "en": "Construct the middle and tonify deficiency"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "中焦虚寒，脘腹拘急疼痛",
        "en": "Middle-jiao vacuity cold with cramping abdominal pain"
      },
      {
        "zh": "虚劳里急",
        "en": "Taxation deficiency with internal urgency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "肺虚燥咳",
        "en": "Dry cough from Lung deficiency"
      },
      {
        "zh": "气虚乏力，食少便溏",
        "en": "Qi-deficiency fatigue with reduced appetite and loose stools"
      },
      {
        "zh": "小儿脾虚食少",
        "en": "Pediatric Spleen deficiency with poor appetite"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "湿热内蕴、中满气滞、呕吐、湿盛脘腹胀满及糖尿病（消渴）者不宜；牙疳、小儿疳积患者慎用。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 15,
      "max": 60,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "入汤剂宜烊化冲服或去渣后兑入再煎片刻；一般用量15–60g。小建中汤原方用饴糖一升（约30g）为君。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "饴糖",
        "method": "糯米或粳米经麦芽发酵熬制而成的糖浆",
        "effect": "甘温质润，建中缓急，为补虚缓痛专品"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "饴糖含麦芽糖与葡萄糖，糖尿病及肥胖者忌用；助湿生痰，湿痰盛、舌苔厚腻者不宜。入汤剂须烊化，避免久煎焦化。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "jin_gui_yao_lue",
        "classification": "血痹虚劳病脉证并治",
        "passage": "虚劳里急，悸，衄，腹中痛，梦失精，四肢酸疼，手足烦热，咽干口燥，小建中汤主之。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "以糯米、粳米、小麦等富含淀粉的谷物，经麦芽（或发芽大麦）水解发酵熬制而成的糖浆。归脾、胃、肺经。甘温质润，味最甜而性和缓，为甘温建中之首品，最能补脾虚、缓肝急而止腹痛，为张仲景小建中汤、大建中汤、黄芪建中汤之君药。兼能润肺止咳，用于虚劳燥咳。",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian editorial team",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "maltose",
          "name_zh": "麦芽糖",
          "category": "disaccharide",
          "notes": "principal constituent (~50–60%)"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "glucose",
          "name_zh": "葡萄糖",
          "category": "monosaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "dextrin",
          "name_zh": "糊精",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "maltotriose",
          "name_zh": "麦芽三糖",
          "category": "oligosaccharide"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "饴糖主含麦芽糖、葡萄糖、糊精等可快速吸收的糖类，具有补充能量、缓解腹痛与保护胃黏膜作用，甘温质润最善建中缓急。",
        "en": "Maltose syrup contains maltose, glucose and dextrins — rapidly absorbed sugars providing energy, alleviating abdominal cramping and coating the gastric mucosa; sweet, warm and moistening, it is foremost in constructing the middle."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾胃虚寒之腹痛（如功能性消化不良）",
          "indication_en": "Abdominal pain of Spleen-Stomach vacuity cold (e.g. functional dyspepsia)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "虚劳体弱之营养支持",
          "indication_en": "Nutritional support in taxation deficiency",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 将饴糖列为补气甘温建中的代表药，强调其为小建中汤、大建中汤的君药。",
          "note_en": "Bensky lists Yi Tang as the representative sweet-warm middle-constructing tonic, emphasizing its role as sovereign in Xiao Jian Zhong Tang and Da Jian Zhong Tang."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 指出饴糖甘温质润，与单纯蔗糖不同，所含麦芽糖及糊精吸收较缓，不易骤然升高血糖，但糖尿病患者仍应禁用。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that Yi Tang, unlike plain sucrose, contains maltose and dextrins with slower absorption, yet diabetic patients should still avoid it."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "ma_huang_gen",
    "slug": "ma-huang-gen",
    "name_zh": "麻黄根",
    "name_pinyin": "Má Huáng Gēn",
    "name_en": "Ephedra Root",
    "name_latin": "Ephedrae Radix et Rhizoma (Ephedra sinica, root)",
    "category": "收涩药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "astringent"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "固表止汗",
        "en": "Secure the exterior and stop sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "敛汗固涩",
        "en": "Astringe sweating and secure leakage"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止自汗",
        "en": "Arrest spontaneous sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "止盗汗",
        "en": "Arrest night sweats"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "自汗",
        "en": "Spontaneous sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "盗汗",
        "en": "Night sweats"
      },
      {
        "zh": "产后虚汗",
        "en": "Postpartum deficiency sweating"
      },
      {
        "zh": "体虚多汗",
        "en": "Profuse sweating from constitutional weakness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "阴虚及阳虚汗出不止",
        "en": "Unremitting sweating from yin or yang deficiency"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "有表邪者忌用——麻黄根专于固表敛汗，若表邪未解、汗为驱邪之途时误用之，可致闭门留寇，使邪气内传。本品功效与麻黄茎相反：麻黄发汗，麻黄根止汗，临床必严格区分，绝不可互代。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 9,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–9g；外用可研末扑身。古方牡蛎散用至30g（三钱以上）配伍牡蛎、黄芪、浮小麦同煎。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "生麻黄根",
        "method": "洗净切段生用",
        "effect": "固表止汗，为临床常用形式"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "【安全重点】麻黄根为麻黄科植物草麻黄、中麻黄的干燥根及根茎，与其地上部分的麻黄茎（ma_huang）为同一植物的不同药用部位，药性与功效完全相反——麻黄茎辛温发汗解表，麻黄根甘平固表止汗。临床处方及配药时必须严格区分，不可代换。本品几乎不含麻黄碱（ephedrine），无心血管兴奋作用，但仍应避免用于表邪未解者。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "classification": "草部·麻黄",
        "passage": "麻黄发汗之气，驶不能御；而根节止汗，效如影响，物理之妙，不可测度者如此。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "麻黄科植物草麻黄 Ephedra sinica 或中麻黄 Ephedra intermedia 的干燥根及根茎。归肺经。甘涩性平，专走肌表以固腠理、敛汗液，为治自汗、盗汗之要药。与麻黄（茎）为同株异效之典型——茎发汗，根止汗——是中药「一物两用、性效相反」最著名的例子之一。常与牡蛎、黄芪、浮小麦配伍（牡蛎散）。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q310961",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian editorial team",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "ephedradines A–D",
          "name_zh": "麻黄根碱",
          "category": "macrocyclic spermine alkaloid",
          "notes": "hypotensive and antihidrotic markers; distinct from stem ephedrine"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "maokonine",
          "name_zh": "麻黄宁",
          "category": "tyrosine-derived alkaloid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "flavonoids (ephedrannin A, B)",
          "name_zh": "麻黄根黄酮",
          "category": "proanthocyanidin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "tannins",
          "name_zh": "鞣质",
          "category": "polyphenol"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "麻黄根主含麻黄根碱（ephedradines）、麻黄宁等大环精胺类生物碱及鞣质、黄酮等，药理示其降压、抑汗及收敛作用，与麻黄茎所含麻黄碱类拟交感作用完全不同。",
        "en": "Ephedra root contains macrocyclic spermine alkaloids (ephedradines A–D, maokonine), tannins and flavonoids; pharmacology shows hypotensive, antihidrotic (sweat-suppressing) and astringent effects — pharmacologically distinct from the sympathomimetic ephedrine of the stem."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "自汗、盗汗",
          "indication_en": "Spontaneous and night sweats",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "产后虚汗及病后虚汗",
          "indication_en": "Postpartum and post-illness deficiency sweating",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 明确区分麻黄茎（发汗）与麻黄根（止汗），强调二者不可互代，并将牡蛎散列为经典止汗方。",
          "note_en": "Bensky explicitly distinguishes Ma Huang stem (diaphoretic) from Ma Huang Gen root (antihidrotic), emphasizing they are not interchangeable, and lists Mu Li San as the classical sweat-arresting formula."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 引述药理研究示麻黄根碱具降压作用，与麻黄碱升压作用相反。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen cite pharmacology studies showing ephedradines have hypotensive activity — opposite to the pressor effect of stem ephedrine."
        },
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》将麻黄根与麻黄分别立条，规定其来源、性状与功效截然不同，处方时须严格区分。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists Ma Huang Gen and Ma Huang as separate monographs with distinct sources, characteristics and indications; prescriptions must strictly distinguish them."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "dan_dou_chi",
    "slug": "dan-dou-chi",
    "name_zh": "淡豆豉",
    "name_pinyin": "Dàn Dòu Chǐ",
    "name_en": "Fermented Soybean",
    "name_latin": "Sojae Semen Praeparatum",
    "category": "辛凉解表药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "bitter",
      "acrid"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "解表除烦",
        "en": "Release the exterior and eliminate vexation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宣发郁热",
        "en": "Diffuse and vent constrained heat"
      },
      {
        "zh": "和中",
        "en": "Harmonize the middle"
      },
      {
        "zh": "透邪外达",
        "en": "Vent pathogens outward"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "外感表证，发热恶寒，头痛",
        "en": "Exterior pattern with fever, chills and headache"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热病胸中烦闷、虚烦不眠",
        "en": "Vexation and insomnia from heat disease (栀子豉汤证)"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温病初起",
        "en": "Early-stage warm disease"
      },
      {
        "zh": "痘疹初发不透",
        "en": "Incomplete eruption of measles and pox"
      },
      {
        "zh": "食积所致胸脘痞闷",
        "en": "Chest and epigastric stuffiness from food stagnation"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "胃虚易呕者慎用。单品力薄，多与金银花、连翘、栀子等配伍。孕妇慎用大剂量。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 12,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–12g。根据加工不同性味稍异：桑叶、青蒿同制者偏凉，用于风热与温病；麻黄、苏叶同制者偏温，用于风寒；本条目以吴鞠通银翘散所用之辛凉制品为准。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "淡豆豉",
        "method": "大豆以桑叶、青蒿煎汁浸渍发酵，加盐少许或不加盐",
        "effect": "辛凉解表，除烦透邪，为银翘散所用"
      },
      {
        "name": "咸豆豉",
        "method": "以麻黄、苏叶等煎汁浸渍发酵，加盐",
        "effect": "辛温解表，作调味品而非正品入药"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品以大豆 Glycine max 发酵加工而成，入药须用依《中国药典》之发酵工艺制成的淡豆豉，不可用日常食用的咸豆豉或纳豆代替。辛凉或辛温品须依处方需要选用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shang_han_lun",
        "classification": "辨太阳病脉证并治下",
        "passage": "发汗后，水药不得入口为逆；若更发汗，必吐下不止。发汗吐下后，虚烦不得眠；若剧者，必反复颠倒，心中懊憹，栀子豉汤主之。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "豆科植物大豆 Glycine max 的成熟种子经发酵加工品。归肺、胃经。辛开苦降，既能解表散邪又能宣发胸中郁热而除烦，为治外感表证及热病后虚烦不眠之要药。吴鞠通银翘散以之配淡竹叶，共助金银花、连翘轻清宣透；张仲景栀子豉汤以之配栀子，专治虚烦懊憹。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q131530",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian editorial team",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "soy isoflavones (daidzein, genistein)",
          "name_zh": "大豆异黄酮（大豆苷元、染料木素）",
          "category": "isoflavone"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "soy saponins",
          "name_zh": "大豆皂苷",
          "category": "triterpenoid saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "free amino acids from fermentation",
          "name_zh": "发酵游离氨基酸",
          "category": "amino acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "B-vitamins (fermentation products)",
          "name_zh": "B 族维生素",
          "category": "vitamin"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "淡豆豉为大豆经桑叶、青蒿煎汁发酵加工品，主含大豆异黄酮、皂苷及发酵生成的游离氨基酸与B族维生素，药理示其解热、轻度发汗与助消化作用。",
        "en": "Dan Dou Chi is soybean fermented with mulberry leaf and Artemisia decoction; it contains soy isoflavones, saponins and fermentation amino acids / B-vitamins; pharmacology shows antipyretic, mild diaphoretic and digestive effects."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "外感发热、热病虚烦",
          "indication_en": "Common cold fever and post-febrile vexation",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "轻度食积不化",
          "indication_en": "Mild food stagnation",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定淡豆豉以大豆经桑叶、青蒿汁发酵而成，所含大豆异黄酮等作为质量参考。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies Dan Dou Chi as soybean fermented with mulberry leaf and Artemisia decoction, with soy isoflavones as quality reference constituents."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 记载淡豆豉既可辛凉解表，又能治热病后虚烦，为栀子豉汤之臣药。",
          "note_en": "Bensky records Dan Dou Chi as an acrid-cool exterior-releaser and treatment for post-febrile vexation — minister herb of Zhi Zi Chi Tang."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "dan_zhu_ye",
    "slug": "dan-zhu-ye",
    "name_zh": "淡竹叶",
    "name_pinyin": "Dàn Zhú Yè",
    "name_en": "Lophatherum Stem and Leaves",
    "name_latin": "Lophatheri Herba (Lophatherum gracile)",
    "category": "清热泻火药",
    "nature": "cold",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bland"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热泻火",
        "en": "Clear heat and drain fire"
      },
      {
        "zh": "除烦止渴",
        "en": "Eliminate vexation and alleviate thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利尿通淋",
        "en": "Promote urination and unblock painful dribbling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "导热下行",
        "en": "Guide heat downward through the urine"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "热病烦渴",
        "en": "Vexation and thirst in febrile disease"
      },
      {
        "zh": "口舌生疮",
        "en": "Sores on the mouth and tongue"
      },
      {
        "zh": "小便短赤、热淋涩痛",
        "en": "Dark scanty urination and heat-lin with painful dribbling"
      },
      {
        "zh": "心火移热小肠",
        "en": "Heart fire transferred to the Small Intestine"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温病卫分之发热口渴",
        "en": "Wei-level warm disease with fever and thirst"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "无实热及阴虚火旺者不宜。孕妇及体虚无热者慎用。本品与竹茹（zhu_ru，竹秆中间层）来源不同，不可混淆。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 6,
      "max": 10,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服6–10g；鲜品加倍。本品为禾本科淡竹叶属植物，与竹类植物（竹叶、竹茹）来源不同，须严格区分。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "淡竹叶",
        "method": "晒干生用",
        "effect": "清热除烦、利尿通淋"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "【辨识要点】本品为禾本科淡竹叶属多年生草本 Lophatherum gracile 的干燥茎叶，与真正的竹类（禾本科竹亚科）植物来源不同，不可与竹叶（鲜竹叶，Phyllostachys spp. 叶）或竹茹（zhu_ru，竹类茎秆中间层）混淆。现代药典明确区分三者。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "classification": "草部",
        "passage": "淡竹叶，处处原野有之，春生苗，高数寸，细茎绿叶，俨如竹米落地所生，其根一窠十数须，须上结子。味甘、淡，性寒，能清心火，利小便。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "禾本科植物淡竹叶 Lophatherum gracile 的干燥茎叶。归心、胃、小肠经。甘淡性寒，上清心胃之热以除烦止渴，下利小肠之湿以导热下行，为治热病烦渴、口舌生疮、小便赤涩之常用药。与竹茹（竹类茎秆中间层）及真正竹叶（竹类叶片）来源不同，常易混淆。吴鞠通银翘散、吴鞠通三仁汤均用之。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q17071925",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian editorial team",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "lophatherum flavonoids (vitexin, orientin)",
          "name_zh": "淡竹叶黄酮（牡荆素、荭草素）",
          "category": "C-glycosyl flavonoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "triterpenoids (arundoin, cylindrin)",
          "name_zh": "三萜类（芦竹素、白茅素）",
          "category": "triterpenoid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "phenolic acids",
          "name_zh": "酚酸类",
          "category": "phenolic acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "potassium salts",
          "name_zh": "钾盐",
          "category": "mineral"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "淡竹叶主含C-糖苷黄酮（牡荆素、荭草素）、三萜类及钾盐，药理示其利尿、解热与抗氧化作用，临床用于热病烦渴及热淋涩痛。",
        "en": "Lophatherum contains C-glycosyl flavonoids (vitexin, orientin), triterpenoids and potassium salts; pharmacology shows diuretic, antipyretic and antioxidant effects, clinically used for febrile vexation-thirst and heat-lin dysuria."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "口舌生疮、热病烦渴",
          "indication_en": "Oral ulcers and febrile vexation-thirst",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "尿路感染（热淋）",
          "indication_en": "Urinary tract infection (heat-lin)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》规定淡竹叶来源为禾本科淡竹叶 Lophatherum gracile 的干燥茎叶，与竹类植物区别。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies Dan Zhu Ye as Lophatherum gracile (Poaceae), distinct from true bamboo species."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 将淡竹叶列入清热泻火药，强调与竹叶（Phyllostachys）及竹茹来源不同，不可混淆。",
          "note_en": "Bensky classifies Dan Zhu Ye among heat-clearing fire-draining herbs and emphasizes it is not the same plant as Zhu Ye (Phyllostachys leaves) or Zhu Ru."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "geng_mi",
    "slug": "geng-mi",
    "name_zh": "粳米",
    "name_pinyin": "Jīng Mǐ",
    "name_en": "Non-glutinous Rice",
    "name_latin": "Oryzae Semen (Oryza sativa)",
    "category": "补气药",
    "nature": "neutral",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "补中益气",
        "en": "Tonify the middle and augment qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "健脾和胃",
        "en": "Fortify the Spleen and harmonize the Stomach"
      },
      {
        "zh": "生津止渴",
        "en": "Engender fluids and alleviate thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "护胃存津",
        "en": "Protect Stomach qi and preserve fluids"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "脾胃气虚，食少倦怠",
        "en": "Spleen-Stomach qi deficiency with reduced appetite and fatigue"
      },
      {
        "zh": "热病烦渴",
        "en": "Febrile vexation-thirst"
      },
      {
        "zh": "泄泻痢疾",
        "en": "Diarrhea and dysentery"
      },
      {
        "zh": "病后调养",
        "en": "Convalescence and recovery"
      },
      {
        "zh": "大寒药中用以护胃",
        "en": "Protecting Stomach qi within cold-draining formulas (e.g. Bai Hu Tang)"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "本品为常用食品，一般无明显禁忌。糖尿病患者需控制用量。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 9,
      "max": 30,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服9–30g；入汤剂煮至米熟汤成即可，古方白虎汤用6合（约90ml干米）。可煮粥单用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "粳米",
        "method": "淘净生用",
        "effect": "补中益气、护胃存津，入汤剂时与他药同煎至米熟"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "常用食品，安全。入汤剂须确认米粒熟透方得药效。糖尿病患者需计入碳水化合物总量。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "shang_han_lun",
        "classification": "辨阳明病脉证并治",
        "passage": "服桂枝汤，大汗出后，大烦渴不解，脉洪大者，白虎加人参汤主之。（白虎汤方：知母六两，石膏一斤，甘草二两，粳米六合。）"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "禾本科植物稻 Oryza sativa 的去壳种仁（非糯性品种）。归脾、胃、肺经。甘平补中，为天下之主食，既能补脾胃之气以健运化，又能生津护胃以存津液，在白虎汤等大寒剂中与石膏、知母同煎，用以顾护胃气防其苦寒伤中，为张仲景方中的护胃佐使。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q11575",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian editorial team",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "starch (amylose and amylopectin)",
          "name_zh": "淀粉（直链与支链）",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "rice proteins (glutelin, prolamin)",
          "name_zh": "大米蛋白",
          "category": "protein"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "B-vitamins (thiamine, niacin)",
          "name_zh": "B 族维生素",
          "category": "vitamin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "minerals (potassium, magnesium, phosphorus)",
          "name_zh": "钾、镁、磷等矿物质",
          "category": "mineral"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "粳米为大米主食，主含淀粉、蛋白质与B族维生素，能供给能量、健脾养胃、生津存液。大寒药中同煎粳米可在液面形成米汤胶质层，延缓石膏等矿物类药溶出，保护胃黏膜。",
        "en": "Geng Mi is staple rice containing starch, proteins and B-vitamins; it supplies energy, fortifies the Spleen and Stomach, and engenders fluids. When decocted with cold mineral drugs, the rice decoction forms a protective mucilaginous layer that slows mineral extraction and shields the gastric mucosa."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "脾胃虚弱病后调养（米粥食养）",
          "indication_en": "Convalescence in Spleen-Stomach weakness (congee therapy)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "胃黏膜保护（伴石膏等矿物类药）",
          "indication_en": "Gastric mucosal protection with mineral herbs",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出白虎汤方中粳米与甘草同为顾护胃气之佐使，防石膏、知母大寒伤中。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes that in Bai Hu Tang, Geng Mi and Gan Cao together protect Stomach qi, preventing the cold nature of Shi Gao and Zhi Mu from injuring the middle."
        },
        {
          "source": "chen_chen_cmm",
          "note_zh": "Chen & Chen 指出粳米与石膏同煎时，米中淀粉可与石膏表面形成胶体层，稍缓其寒性。",
          "note_en": "Chen & Chen note that when decocted with Shi Gao, rice starch forms a colloidal coating moderating the mineral's cold nature."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "bai_dou_kou",
    "slug": "bai-dou-kou",
    "name_zh": "白豆蔻",
    "name_pinyin": "Bái Dòu Kòu",
    "name_en": "Round Cardamom",
    "name_latin": "Amomi Fructus Rotundus (Amomum kravanh)",
    "category": "化湿药",
    "nature": "warm",
    "flavors": [
      "acrid"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "化湿行气",
        "en": "Transform dampness and move qi"
      },
      {
        "zh": "温中止呕",
        "en": "Warm the middle and stop vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "开胃消食",
        "en": "Open the appetite and disperse food stagnation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "宣化中上焦湿浊",
        "en": "Diffuse and transform dampness in the middle and upper burners"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "湿浊阻滞中焦，胸脘痞闷",
        "en": "Damp-turbidity obstructing the middle burner with chest and epigastric stuffiness"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿温初起，身热不扬",
        "en": "Early-stage damp-warmth with smoldering fever"
      },
      {
        "zh": "食积不化，呕吐",
        "en": "Food stagnation with vomiting"
      },
      {
        "zh": "胃寒呕吐",
        "en": "Vomiting from Stomach cold"
      },
      {
        "zh": "脘腹胀满、嗳气",
        "en": "Epigastric distension and belching"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "阴虚血燥及无寒湿者慎用。本品辛温香燥，久煎则香气散失，宜后下。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 6,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–6g；入煎剂宜打碎后下，以免香气挥发。常与砂仁、藿香、佩兰等同用。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "白豆蔻",
        "method": "打碎后下",
        "effect": "保存其挥发油有效成分，长于化湿行气"
      },
      {
        "name": "白豆蔻壳",
        "method": "去仁用壳",
        "effect": "力缓，长于宽中行气，用于脘腹轻度胀满"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "本品含挥发油（主成分桉叶素），久煎则药效挥发散失，入煎剂必须后下（最后3–5分钟入煎）。阴虚内热及无湿邪者不宜。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "wen_bing_tiao_bian",
        "classification": "上焦篇 三仁汤",
        "passage": "头痛恶寒，身重疼痛，舌白不渴，脉弦细而濡，面色淡黄，胸闷不饥，午后身热，状若阴虚，病难速已，名曰湿温……三仁汤主之。（方：杏仁五钱，飞滑石六钱，白通草二钱，白蔻仁二钱，竹叶二钱，厚朴二钱，生薏仁六钱，半夏五钱。）"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "姜科植物白豆蔻 Amomum kravanh 或爪哇白豆蔻 Amomum compactum 的干燥成熟果实。归肺、脾、胃经。辛温芳香，上入肺经以宣化上焦湿浊，中入脾胃以化湿行气、温中止呕，为三仁汤「三仁」之一（与杏仁、薏苡仁并列），主司中焦宣化。入煎剂宜打碎后下，以免久煎有效挥发油散失。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q1138476",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian editorial team",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "1,8-cineole (eucalyptol)",
          "name_zh": "桉叶素（1,8-桉油精）",
          "category": "monoterpenoid (volatile oil)",
          "notes": "principal aromatic constituent"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "α-terpineol",
          "name_zh": "α-松油醇",
          "category": "monoterpene alcohol"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "α-pinene, β-pinene",
          "name_zh": "α-、β-蒎烯",
          "category": "monoterpene"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "camphor",
          "name_zh": "樟脑",
          "category": "monoterpene ketone"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "白豆蔻主含挥发油（桉叶素、α-松油醇、蒎烯、樟脑等），药理示其促进胃肠蠕动、抗菌、助消化及止呕作用；久煎有效成分散失，故入煎剂须后下。",
        "en": "Bai Dou Kou contains volatile oils (1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, pinenes, camphor); pharmacology shows prokinetic, antimicrobial, digestive and antiemetic effects. Active volatiles are lost on prolonged decoction, so it should be added near the end of cooking."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "功能性消化不良、食欲不振",
          "indication_en": "Functional dyspepsia and poor appetite",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "恶心呕吐（胃寒、孕吐）",
          "indication_en": "Nausea and vomiting (Stomach cold, morning sickness)",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》以桉叶素含量为白豆蔻质量指标，规定含挥发油不得少于4.0%（ml/g）。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses 1,8-cineole content as the quality marker, requiring ≥4.0% (ml/g) volatile oil."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出白豆蔻与砂仁同为芳香化湿要药，白豆蔻偏于宣化上中焦湿浊，砂仁偏于温化下焦。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Bai Dou Kou and Sha Ren are both aromatic damp-transformers; Bai Dou Kou diffuses upper-middle burner dampness while Sha Ren warms the lower burner."
        }
      ]
    }
  },
  {
    "key": "tong_cao",
    "slug": "tong-cao",
    "name_zh": "通草",
    "name_pinyin": "Tōng Cǎo",
    "name_en": "Tetrapanax Pith",
    "name_latin": "Tetrapanacis Medulla (Tetrapanax papyrifer)",
    "category": "利水渗湿药",
    "nature": "cool",
    "flavors": [
      "sweet",
      "bland"
    ],
    "actions": [
      {
        "zh": "清热利水",
        "en": "Clear heat and promote urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "通乳下乳",
        "en": "Promote lactation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "利湿退肿",
        "en": "Drain dampness and reduce edema"
      },
      {
        "zh": "清肺开窍",
        "en": "Clear the Lung and open the orifices of water passages"
      }
    ],
    "indications": [
      {
        "zh": "湿热淋证、小便短赤涩痛",
        "en": "Damp-heat lin with dark scanty painful urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "水肿尿少",
        "en": "Edema with scanty urination"
      },
      {
        "zh": "产后乳汁不下、乳汁稀少",
        "en": "Postpartum insufficient lactation"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿温病胸闷、小便不利",
        "en": "Damp-warmth disease with chest oppression and dysuria"
      },
      {
        "zh": "湿热身困",
        "en": "Damp-heat with generalized heaviness"
      }
    ],
    "contraindications_zh": "孕妇及气阴两虚、中寒无湿者忌用。本品与木通（含马兜铃酸的关木通历史使用争议）不同，通草质轻通利，无肾毒性。",
    "dosage_range": {
      "min": 3,
      "max": 5,
      "unit": "g",
      "notes": "煎服3–5g；力薄量轻。本品质轻性平和，与古方中之「木通」不同，现代临床常用通草替代木通以避免马兜铃酸肾毒性风险。"
    },
    "processing_methods": [
      {
        "name": "通草",
        "method": "切片生用",
        "effect": "清热利水，通乳"
      }
    ],
    "safety_notes_zh": "【重要说明】通草为五加科植物通脱木 Tetrapanax papyrifer 的干燥茎髓，不含马兜铃酸，与马兜铃科关木通（Aristolochia manshuriensis，含马兜铃酸、有肾毒性）完全不同。古籍「木通」在近代时期存在关木通误用情况，现《中国药典》已撤销关木通入药资格，临床通利剂宜选用通草或木通（Akebia quinata 系）。孕妇禁用。",
    "classical_references": [
      {
        "text_key": "ben_cao_gang_mu",
        "classification": "草部",
        "passage": "通草（通脱木），味甘、淡，性寒。气味俱薄，清肺热、利小便，通乳汁。"
      }
    ],
    "description_zh": "五加科植物通脱木 Tetrapanax papyrifer 的干燥茎髓。归肺、胃经。甘淡性微寒，质轻气薄，上入肺以清肺热开水之上源，下入胃以利水渗湿通淋；兼能通乳。吴鞠通三仁汤以之配滑石、淡竹叶清利湿热于下焦。与马兜铃科之关木通来源、毒性完全不同，现代临床多以通草代木通以防肾毒风险。孕妇禁用。",
    "wikidata_id": "Q15545155",
    "verification": {
      "status": "draft",
      "reviewer": "Bencao Dian editorial team",
      "last_reviewed": "2026-04-09"
    },
    "pharmacology": {
      "active_constituents": [
        {
          "name_en": "polysaccharides",
          "name_zh": "多糖",
          "category": "polysaccharide"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "triterpenoid saponins",
          "name_zh": "三萜皂苷",
          "category": "triterpenoid saponin"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "tetrapanax acids",
          "name_zh": "通脱木酸",
          "category": "triterpene acid"
        },
        {
          "name_en": "potassium salts",
          "name_zh": "钾盐",
          "category": "mineral"
        }
      ],
      "summary": {
        "zh": "通草主含多糖、三萜皂苷及钾盐，药理示轻度利尿作用。与含马兜铃酸的关木通来源及毒性完全不同，不含肾毒性成分，现代临床取代关木通。",
        "en": "Tong Cao contains polysaccharides, triterpenoid saponins and potassium salts with mild diuretic action. It is botanically and toxicologically distinct from Aristolochia-type Guan Mu Tong (which contains nephrotoxic aristolochic acid) and is used today to replace that deprecated herb."
      },
      "modern_clinical_uses": [
        {
          "indication_zh": "产后乳汁不通",
          "indication_en": "Postpartum lactation insufficiency",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        },
        {
          "indication_zh": "湿热淋证",
          "indication_en": "Damp-heat lin (urinary) syndrome",
          "evidence_level": "traditional-use"
        }
      ],
      "evidence_notes": [
        {
          "source": "chinese_pharmacopoeia_2020",
          "note_zh": "《中国药典》收载通草为五加科植物通脱木的干燥茎髓，已于2005年起撤销关木通入药，强调二者不可混淆。",
          "note_en": "Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists Tong Cao as the dried stem pith of Tetrapanax papyrifer (Araliaceae). Guan Mu Tong (Aristolochia) was removed from the pharmacopoeia in 2005 — the two must not be confused."
        },
        {
          "source": "bensky_mm_3e",
          "note_zh": "Bensky 指出通草性平和利水而不伤正，为产后通乳及湿温病轻清利水之常用药。",
          "note_en": "Bensky notes Tong Cao is a mild diuretic that does not damage upright qi — commonly used for postpartum lactation support and light damp-warmth formulas."
        },
        {
          "source": "who_monographs",
          "note_zh": "WHO 植物药物安全性参考强调必须区分通草（Tetrapanax，安全）与马兜铃科关木通（有肾毒性），处方用名宜明确。",
          "note_en": "WHO herbal medicine safety references stress the distinction between Tetrapanax-type Tong Cao (safe) and Aristolochia-type Guan Mu Tong (nephrotoxic); prescribers should disambiguate."
        }
      ]
    }
  }
]